University  of  California. 

O!  FT   (  >K 

Received  Q?zZ<j^ 

ession  No.  /?/6 >9f./     •    Class  No. 


HANDBOOK 


OF 


SUBSISTENCE  STORES. 


COMPILED  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION   OF  THE  COMMISSARY 

GENERAL  FROM  MONOGRAPHS  WRITTEN  BY 

OFFICERS  OF  THE  SUBSISTENCE 

DEPARTMENT. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  WAR, 

FOR   USE  IN 

THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON  : 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1896. 


•ffl 


WAR  DEPARTMENT, 

Document  No,  19. 

Office  Commissary  General  of  Subsistence. 


Pag*. 


Apples,  Canned 

Evaporated 

Apricots,  Canned 

Bacon 

Breakfast 

Baking  Powder 

Basins,  Hand 

Beans 

Baked,  Canned  . 

Beef,  Canned 

Salt 

Blacking,  Shoe 

Bluing 

Brooms,  Whisk 

Brushes,  Blacking 

Hair,  Large- 
Hair,  Small.. 

Nail 

Tooth 

Butter 

Buttons 

Candles 

Can  Openers 

Chamois  Skins 

Cheese,  Edam 

Chocolate 

Cigars 

Cinnamon 

Cloves 

Codfish 

Coffee,  Issue 

Java 

Mocha 

Comhs 

Corn,  Green,  Canned. 

Corn  Meal 

Crabs,  Canned 

Crackers 

Electro-silicon 


8 
9 
13 
14 
20 
20 
22 
23 
24 
26 
26 
27 
28 
29 
29 
29 
30 
30 
31 
31 
32 
32 
32 
33 
35 
38 
39 
39 
42 
48 
49 
50 
51 
53 
54 
55 
57 


(3) 


4  CONTENTS. 

Flavoring  Extract,  Lemon 

Vanilla 59 

Flour 59 

Fruits,  Canned 76 

Evaporated 79 

Gelatin 80 

Hams 82 

Deviled 85 

Handkerchiefs,  Linen 85 

Silk 86 

Hard  Bread 86 

Hominy 90 

Jam,  Blackberry 91 

Jelly,  Currant 92 

Lard 93 

Macaroni 99 

Mackerel 100 

Matches 103 

Milk,  Canned 104 

Molasses 105 

Mushrooms 106 

Mustard 107 

French 108 

Needles 109 

Nutmegs 109 

Oatmeal 111 

Oil,  Olive 113 

Onions 11"' 

Oysters 117 

Peaches,  Canned 120 

Pears,  Canned 121 

Peas 122 

Pepper i  - 1 

Red 126 

Pigs'  Feet 127 

Pineapples,  Canned 1-7 

Pipes,  Brier-wood 129 

ins „ 130 

Pork 130 

s 

Preserve,  Damson l  n 

Prunes 141 

Strops 

Bice I  I 

Salmon,  Canned 146 

Salt 149 

Sardines 

Sauce,  Worcestershire 153 


CONTENTS.  5 

Page. 

Shrimps,  Canned 154 

Sirup,  Cane 154 

Soap,  Laundry 156 

Toilet 159 

Soups,  Canned 161 

Compressed 163 

Starch 164 

Sugar '. 166 

Tea 176 

Thread,  Cotton 181 

Linen 181 

Silk,  Black 182 

Tobacco 182 

Tomatoes,  Canned 183 

Tongue,  Beef,  Canned 185 

Towels 185 

Toweling 186 

Vinegar 187 

APPENDIX. 

Notes  on  Canned  Goods 191 

Notes  on  Insects 198 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE  STORES. 


APPLES,  CANNED. 

For  canning  purposes,  moderately  tart  apples  are  better  than 
sweet  ones.  Canned  sweet  apples  usually  have  little  flavor, 
are  insipid,  and  not  desirable  for  Army  use. 

What  are  known  as  winter  varieties  of  apples  are  better  for 
canning  than  the  earlier  varieties.  Good  apples  are  put  up  in 
Maine,  Michigan,  Missouri,  and  other  States,  but  most  exten- 
sively in  the  State  of  New  York ;  and  Western  New  York 
apples,  on  account  of  their  firmness  and  flavor,  are  considered 
the  best  for  canning. 

There  are  two  grades  of  New  York  canned  apples,  viz: 
"Standards"  and  "Seconds."  The  "Standards"  are  made 
from  selected  Greenings  or  Baldwins;  the  "Seconds"  from 
irregular  pieces  of  Greenings  or  Baldwins,  and  from  apples 
of  other  varieties.  The  "Standards"  grade  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  even  and  regular  appearance  of  the  fruit,  and 
the  tartness,  firmness,  and  flavor  peculiar  to  the  Greening 
and  Baldwin  varieties  of  apples. 

Apples  to  be  canned  are,  after  careful  selection,  peeled, 
cored,  and  quartered  by  machinery ;  then  dropped  into  tubs 
of  cold  water  to  preserve  their  color;  from  these  they  are 
packed  in  cans,  each  containing  as  much  fruit  as  it  will  hold, 
and  the  interstices  filled  with  water.  The  cans  are  then  capped 
and  processed. 

Canned  apples  are  generally  put  up  in  either  3-pound  or 
1 -gallon  cans. 

Upon  opening  a  can  of  good  apples,  the  fruit  appears  bright 
(tart)  and  free  from  bruises  or  discolored  pieces.  Unnatural 
whiteness  indicates  that  it  has  been  bleached  with  sulphur. 

Canned  apples  that  have  been  imperfectly  processed,  or 
damaged  from  any  cause,  ferment  quickly,  a  condition  dis- 
covered by  the  swelling  of  the  cans.    Cans  that  have  fermented 

(?) 


8  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STOB 

are  sometimes  reprocessed.     Apples  or  other  fruits  that  have 
been  reprocessed  should  not  be  purchased  for  Army  use. 

Canned  apples  are  packed  in  cases  containing  six  or  twelve 
1 -gallon  cans,  or  twenty-four  3-pound  cans. 

APPLES,  EVAPORATED. 

Evaporated  apples  are  cured  by  the  Alden  process. 

Slightly  tart,  sound,  fresh  apples,  without  bruises,  are 
required  for  making  good  evaporated  apples. 

The  peeled,  cored,  and  sliced  fresh  apples  are  subjected  for 
a  sufficient  time  to  the  action  of  a  strong  current  of  hot,  dry 
air,  whereby  a  large  proportion  of  their  water  is  evaporated 
and  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  their  starch  converted 
into  sugar. 

The  effect  of  the  process  is  to  preserve  the  sliced  apples  by 
desiccation  and  saccharization,  conjointly. 

Evaporated  apples  are  put  up  in  50 -pound  boxes. 

APRICOTS,  CANNED. 

Apricots,  for  canning,  should  be  ripe  on  both  sides,  but  still 
firm.  If  they  are  not  ripe,  the  canned  product  will  not  have 
the  proper  flavor ;  if  too  ripe,  it  will  become  mushy  while  1  >eing 
processed. 

After  the  cans  are  filled,  a  quantity  of  the  best  refined  cane 
sugar,  sufficient  to  neutralize  the  natural  acidity  of  the  fruit, 
is  added. 

In  processing,  some  packers  use  the  open-vent  method. 
the  method  of  closingthe  can  and  leaving  a  slight  puncture 
for  the  escape  of  the  steam  and  air.  and  afterwards  closing  the 
puncture  with  solder.  A  better  and  more  cleanly  method  is 
to  hermetically  seal  the  can.  and  then,  after  processing  it  for 
about  ten  or  twelve  niinntes.  puncture  and  resolder  it  ini 
mediately.  The  sirup  should  have  a  good  body  and  a  fruity 
flavor,  and  the  can  should  be  well  filled  with  fruit. 

If  the  cans  are  processed   too  much,  their  contents  become 

soft  and  will  not  stand  transportation ;  if  too  little,  their  con 

tents  are  apt  to  be  hard  and  deficient  in  flavor. 

Canned  apricots,  peaches,  and  pears,  properly  put  up.  im 
prove  with  age   until   they  have  been  packed  three  years. 

None  of  these  fruits  should  be  kept  in  an  opened  can. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  9 

If  unrefined  sugar  is  used  in  canning  apricots,  it  injures 
their  taste  and  appearance ;  and  if  glucose  is  used,  it  improves 
the  appearance  but  adds  nothing  to  the  taste  and  detracts  from 
the  keeping  qualities. 

Apricots  are  packed  for  the  trade  in  2|  and  3  pound  cans, 
twenty-four  to  the  case.  The  2^-pound  cans  only  are  purchased 
for  Army  use. 

BACON. 

Bacon  is  the  flesh  of  the  hog  cured  or  preserved  by  salting 
and  smoking. 

The  dressed  hogs,  after  hanging  in  the  cooling  room  until 
they  are  thoroughly  cooled,  are  taken  down  and  cut,  accord 
ing  to  the  rules  of  the  trade,  into  pieces  for  making  the  classes 
of  meat  required.  The  pieces  destined  for  making  bacon  are 
well  rubbed  with  salt  and  placed  in  layers,  in  bulk,  in  a  room 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  36°  to  40°  F.,  and  allowed  to 
remain  in  bulk  during  a  period  of  from  fifty  to  eighty  days, 
according  to  their  weight,  during  which  time  they  are  re- 
salted  three  or  four  times,  or  more  frequently,  if  necessary. 
The  pieces  are  then  taken  out  of  bulk,  and  after  being  washed, 
are  hung  up  in  the  smokehouse  and  allowed  to  drain  for  ten 
or  twelve  hours.     They  are  then  ready  to  be  smoked. 

In  smoking  bacon,  the  temperature  of  the  smokehouse 
should  never  be  more  than  140°  F. — the  effect  of  a  greater  heat 
is  to  coagulate  the  albumen  of  the  meat  and  impair  its  solu- 
bility and  nutritive  value.  In  smoking  bacon,  it  should  go 
through  what  is  called  ''the  sweat"  (which  means  a  drying), 
which  contributes  largely  to  its  preservation.  Its  preservation 
is,  also,  partly  promoted  by  the  absorption  of  antiseptics 
(pyroligneous  acid  and  creosote)  from  the  smoke  generated 
in  the  slow  combustion  of  the  wood  fuel. 

Well -cured  bacon  is  dry  and  firm ;  poorly -cured  bacon  is  soft 
and  watery,  and  will  not  keep,  unless  the  water  is  driven  off 
by  resmoking.  When  bacon  is  not  properly  smoked,  but  is 
colored  only,  by  the  smoke  of  bark,  it  is  still  moist,  and,  on 
cutting  into  it,  the  moisture  appears  in  the  incision. 

The  best  kinds  of  wood  for  smoking  are  well-seasoned 
hickory  and  rock  maple— preferably  the  former.  It  usually 
339 — 2 


10  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE  STORES. 

takes  from  ten  to  fourteen  days  to  smoke  bacon.     By  the  use 
of  tan  bark  it  can  be  fraudulently  colored  in  four  days. 

Bacon  is  classified  according  to  cuts  and  manner  of  trim- 
ming, as  follows,  viz:  Short-clear  sides,  short-rib  sides.  Ion- 
clear  sides,  Cumberland  sides,  hams,  shoulders,  etc.     Sugar- 
cured  hams  and  breakfast  bacon  are  fancy  kinds  of  bacon. 

The  kind  of  bacon  most  generally  purchased  for  issue  to  the 
Army  is  short-clear  sides. 

To  make  short-clear  sides,  the  backbone,  breastbone,  and 
ribs  are  taken  out,  and  the  hench  bone  sawed  down  smooth 
and  even  with  the  face  of  the  side;  the  feather  of  the  blade 
bone  is  not  taken  out,  the  edges  are  left  smooth,  and  the  side 
is  not  back-strapped  or  flanked. 

The  proper  curing  of  bacon  depends,  of  course,  on  the  size 
of  the  pieces.  Ordinarily,  it  will  take  sixty  days  at  least  to 
cure,  smoke,  and  dry  it  properly;  although  it  can  be  hastened, 
no  doubt,  by  rehandling  every  six  days.  By  this  is  meant  that 
the  green  meat  should  have  salt  rubbed  into  each  piece  that 
often,  and  then  be  repiled. 

Winter- cured  bacon  (that  packed  between  November  1 
and  March  1),  which  is  most  generally  purchased  by  the 
Subsistence  Department,  is  more  economical,  undergoes  less 
shrinkage,  will  stand  transportation  better  in  hot  weather, 
has  a  drier  appearance,  and  is  drier  and  better  than  summer- 
cured  bacon. 

The  inspector  "tries"  each  piece  of  meat  as  it  is  placed  on 
the  inspecting  bench,  shoulder  end  toward  him.  with  a  steel 
trier,  which  he  inserts  into  the  piece  in  three  or  four  places. 
in  the  shoulder  end  near  the  feather  bone,  a>.d  in  the  Hank 
and  the  rump  end,  smelling  the  trier  after  each  insertion,  and 
rejecting  all  pieces  thai  are  unsound,  sour,  or  that  have  any 
odor  except  that  of  sweet .  sound  bacon,  or  thai  do  n<>t  comply 
with  the  rules  relative  to  cuts  and  manner  of  trimming. 

Bacon  should  remain  in  the  smokehouse  several  days  after 
smoking,  so  thai  it  may  be  well  dried  out. 

Packing. — Bacon  for  Army  use  is  packed  in  crates,  and 

should   be    both   cool    and   dry   when    packed.       It    should   he 

weighed,  net,  on  a  scale  thai  has  been  previously  tested  and 

balanced,  and  should  he  placed  on  the  scale  carefully,  s<»  as  to 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  11 

prevent  throwing  it  out  of  adjustment  by  jarring,  and  avoid 
consequent  inaccuracies  in  weights.  Each  piece  is  covered  with 
cotton  cloth .  The  cloth  and  crates  are  included  in  the  tare.  The 
weights  of  pieces  contracted  for  are  restricted  to  not  less  than 
25  nor  more  than  50  pounds ;  it  being  distinctly  understood  that 
the  weights  of  pieces  are  not  to  be  averaged,  but  that  no  piece 
shall  weigh  less  than  25  nor  more  than  50  pounds.  With  few 
exceptions,  this  rule  is  enforced,  although  occasionally  a  few 
pieces  may  weigh  22  or  53  pounds  (it  being  sometimes  difficult 
to  obtain  a  sufficient  quantity  within  the  limit),  the  exceptions 
being  in  cases  requiring  the  making  of  shipments  admitting 
of  no  delay.  Most  of  the  packers  guarantee  weights,  but  they 
are,  nevertheless,  verified  by  the  inspector.  The  number  and 
kinds  of  pieces  contained  in  each  package  are  required  to  be 
marked  thereon. 

The  laws  of  the  United  States  now  require  all  pork  and 
bacon  intended  for  exportation  to  be  inspected  at  the  place 
of  packing  or  exportation.  This  duty  is  placed  upon  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture. 

Storage. — The  storehouse  should,  at  all  times,  be  kept  as 
cool,  dark,  and  dry  as  possible.  The  storeroom  containing 
bacon  should  have  double  doors,  the  inner  one  of  iron  (grates) 
and  the  outer  one  of  solid  wood,  which  latter,  during  clear  and 
warm  weather,  should  be  opened  after  sunset  and  closed  before 
sunrise,  to  admit  the  cool  air  at  night  and  keep  out  the  heated 
air  by  day.  If  the  bacon  is  in  a  cellar  where  it  is  not  conven- 
ient to  arrange  it  as  described  above,  the  windows  should  be 
provided  with  open  grates  and  close  shutters,  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  managed  as  prescribed  for  double  doors,  taking  spe- 
cial care  to  have  the  cellar  dry  and  well  ventilated. 

Bacon  has  been  stored  in  racks.  To  store  bacon  in  this 
manner,  it  is  taken  from  the  packages  as  soon  as  received ;  it 
is  then  placed,  on  edge,  upright  in  the  rack,  the  soft  (the  inner) 
portions  of  the  first  and  second  pieces,  and  of  each  successive 
set  of  two  pieces,  being  faced  toward  each  other  and  pressed 
together.  When  one  section  of  the  rack  is  filled,  it  is  advis- 
able that  wooden  wedges  be  driven  between  each  set  of  two 
sides,  to  press  the  soft  inner  portions  thereof  firmly  together, 


12  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

with  a  view  to  excluding,  in  summer,  as  far  as  possible,  flies, 
dust  and  heated  air,  from  the  inner  portions,  and  at  the  same 

time  affording  a  small  space  for  circulation  of  air  between 
the  backs  of  each  set  of  two  sides. 

Bacon  has,  also,  been  stored  in  bins  packed  in  salt.  The 
bacon,  in  cotton-cloth  covers,  was  placed  in  the  bins  and  each 
piece  covered  with  salt.  It  has  also  been  put  up  for  shipment 
to,  and  storage  therein  at,  posts  located  in  warm  climates,  in 
boxes,  similarly  packed  in  salt.  It  has  been  found,  however, 
that  while  the  salt  preserves  the  bacon  from  putrefaction,  it 
nevertheless  has  a  very  damaging  effect  on  it,  as  the  alkali 
therein  slowly  decomposes  or  eats  up  the  fatty  portion  of  the 
bacon,  separating  it  from  the  rind  in  chunks.  The  packing 
of  bacon  in  bins  or  boxes,  with  salt,  is  not  therefore  recom- 
mendable. 

A  few  years  ago  at  Fort  Brown,  Tex. ,  it  was  observed  that 
the  damp  climate  caused  the  salt  in  which  the  bacon  was 
packed  in  bins  to  become  soft  and  liquescent,  and  trial  was. 
therefore,  made  of  packing  it  in  charcoal  instead  of  salt.  The 
pieces  were  covered  with  cotton  cloth  and  then  placed  in  the 
bins,  and  the  layers  covered  with  not  very  finely  crushed  char- 
coal. The  cotton-cloth  covers  became  black,  but  they  were 
removed,  and  the  bacon  washed  off,  before  issue.  The  exper- 
iment was  a  success. 

Bacon  has,  also,  been  stored  by  hanging  it  on  hooks  driven 
into  the  rafters  or  joists  of  the  storage  room. 

The  invention  of  the  bacon  crate,  and  its  adoption  by  the 
Subsistence  Department  as  its  standard  package  for  bacon. 

have,  however,  led  to  a,  new,  simple,  and  efficient  method  of 
storage.  The  crate,  being  a  ventilated  package  (a  wooden  box 
with  slatted  sides,  top,  and  bottom),  in  addition  to  fulfilling 
the  ordinary  requirements  of  a  package  for  handling  and  trans 
porting  bacon,  is  also  well  adapted  t<>  preserving  it:  and. 
therefore,  bacon  packed  in  crates  should  not.  as  a  rule,  be 

removed  therefrom  until  it  is  issued.  The  cratesof  bacon,  as 
put  Up  by  the  packer,  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  in 

tiers  with  passageways  bet  ween  them,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 

allow  as  free  a  circulation  of  air  as  possible  anion-',  around, 
and  through  them 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTE! 

BACON,  BREAKFAST. 

The  most  desirable  breakfast  bacon  is  cut  from  small  hogs, 
the  original  piece  or  belly  weighing  about  11  pounds;  this  is 
cut  into  three  pieces  which  will  weigh  from  3f  to  5  pounds 
each  before  canvasing.  Heavy,  fat,  or.  thick  pieces  are  not 
desirable — pieces  about  1£  inches  thick  and  3^  to  6  inches 
wide,  which,  when  cut,  show  a  streak  of  lean  and  a  streak  of 
fat,  being  preferable. 

The  curing  of  breakfast  bacon  in  sweet  pickle  is  very  simi- 
lar to  the  curing  of  hams,  the  former  requiring,  of  course, 
less  time  than  the  latter ;  ordinarily  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  days  is  sufficient,  owing  to  its  lack  of  bone  and,  also, 
because  of  its  small  size  as  compared  with  hams ;  it  should 
be  smoked  from  two  to  four  days. 

The  quality  of  breakfast  bacon  depends  upon  the  quality 
of  the  meat  from  which  it  is  made,  the  strength  of  the  pickle, 
the  length  of  time  the  meat  remains  in  the  pickle,  and  the 
slowness  with  which  it  is  smoked. 

Parchment  paper  and  strong,  close-woven  burlap  not 
painted,  are  preferable  as  coverings  to  yellow-washed  canvas. 
Whenever  practicable,  breakfast  bacon  should  be  inspected 
before  it  is  canvased  and  examined  closely  to  see  that  the 
pieces  were  originally  cut  from  light-weight  bellies.  It 
should  be  well  smoked  and  dried  out  before  covering. 

In  inspecting  canvased  bacon,  a  number  of  pieces  are  taken 
at  random,  and  after  the  canvas  is  removed,  are  closely  exam- 
ined. In  both  cases  the  inspector  should  cut  a  few  pieces  in 
two  to  satisfy  himself  that  it  is  properly  cured. 

The  storage  of  breakfast  bacon  requires  care  and  watchful- 
ness ;  upon  its  receipt,  the  pieces  should  be  removed  at  once 
from  the  crates  and  hung  up  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  but  never  in 
a  cellar.  The  room  should  be  well  ventilated ;  if  in  damp, 
hot  weather  it  shows  signs  of  mold,  the  pieces  should  be 
rubbed  with  a  clean,  dry  brush. 

Hams,  breakfast  bacon,  shoulders,  and  dried  beef  are  usu- 
ally canvased  for  summer  use,  but  during  cold  weather  they 
are  sold  without  a  covering,  which  style  is  called  "plain." 

Meats  are  subject  to  mold,  skippers,  souring  or  tainting, 
and  spotting. 


14  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

Mold.   (See  "Hams.") 

Skippers  can  not  be  prevented,  even  with  the  greatest  care; 
canvasing  is  always  done  in  dark,  cool  rooms,  so  as  to  exclude 
the  possibility  of  its  being  "stung"  or  having  eggs  deposited 
on  it  by  a  fly,  and  to  .these  rooms  the  meats  are  removed 
direct  and  at  once  from  the  smokehouse ;  yet,  in  packing  for 
transportation,  a  nail  may  tear  the  covering  or  the  pieces 
may  chafe  against  each  other  and  cause  a  break  in  the  cover- 
ing, or  any  other  accident  may  happen,  which  will  give  the 
ever-present  fly  a  chance  to  deposit  its  eggs,  which  hatch  out, 
according  to  circumstances,  in  from  two  to  six  days.  Can- 
vased  meats  should  be  examined  upon  receipt,  and  should  the 
yellow  wash  be  rubbed  off  the  coverings,  or  any  torn  places 
be  found  therein,  or  the  seams  be  strained  or  any  damage  by 
nails  have  occurred,  and  no  skippers  have  made  their  appear- 
ance, the  coverings  should  be  repaired,  and  the  meats  set 
aside  for  the  first  sales. 

Breakfast  bacon  for  Army  use  is  put  up  in  crates  contain- 
ing about  100  pounds  net.  The  number  and  kind  of  pieces 
in  each  package,  the  gross  and  net  weights  and  tare,  the 
packer's  name  and  location,  and  the  date  of  packing,  should 
be  marked  on  each  package. 

BAKING  POWDER. 

Baking  powder  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  yeast  in  making 
bread. 

It  is  composed  of  an  acid  ingredient,  an  alkali  ingredient, 
and  a  neutral  ingredient  or  "filling."  The  office  of  the 
filling,  which  is  generally  starch,  is  to  keep  the  acid  and  alkali 
ingredients  apart,  and  thereby  preserve  their  chemical  neu- 
trality until  the  baking  powder  is  required  for  use. 

In  the  best  kind  of  baking  powder,  the  only  kind  that  will 
be  treated  of  in  this  article,  the  acid  ingredienl  is  potassium 
bitartrate  (cream  of  tartar);  the  alkali,  sodium  bicarbonate 

(soda)  ;  and  tin-  neutral,  cornstarch.      The  proper  proportions 

of  the  acid  and  alkali  ingredients  are,  of  course,  those  in 
which  they  chemically  combine  with  each  other,  viz.  two  of 
the  former  to  one  of  the  latter.     The  proportion  of  filling  lias 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  15 

an  important  influence  on  the  keeping  quality  and  strength 
of  baking  powder.  Analyses  of  and  experiments  with  many 
samples,  made  under  the  direction  of  W.  H.  Wiley,  chemist, 
and  Profs.  H.  A.  Webber  and  H.  G.  Cornwall,  go  to  prove 
that  when  new,  and  everything  else  is  equal,  baking  pow- 
ders containing  a  small  proportion  of  filling  have  greater 
gas  efficiency  or  strength  than  those  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion; but  that  the  former  deteriorate  very  rapidly,  and 
after  being  kept  on  hand  a  short  time,  have  less  gas  efficiency 
than  the  latter.  Professor  Prescott  considers  that  the  pro- 
portion of  filling  should  be  from  13  to  18  per  cent.  When  the 
proportion  of  filling  exceeds  20  per  cent  the  excess  should  be 
considered  as  adulteration. 

When  baking  powder  is  mixed  with  flour  and  water  added, 
and  the  mixture  made  into  dough,  the  acid  and  alkali  ingre- 
dients are  dissolved  by  the  water  and  thereby  brought  into 
such  intimate  contact  with  each  other  that  a  chemical  reac- 
tion is  set  up  between  them  within  the  dough,  resulting  in 
their  decomposition  and  the  formation  of  a  new  compound, 
potassium -sodium  tartrate  (Rochelle  salt)  and  the  evolution 
of  carbon  dioxide  (carbonic-acid  gas).  The  Rochelle  salt 
amounts  to  77. 2  per  cent  of  the  combined  weights  of  the  acid 
and  alkali  ingredients. 

Of  all  the  residue  left  in  the  bread  made  with  different 
kinds  of  baking  powder,  that  left  when  the  acid  ingredient  is 
cream  of  tartar  is  the  least  harmful,  and  that  when  it  is 
alum,  the  most  harmful. 

It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  cream-of -tartar  bak- 
ing powder  has  greater  gas  efficiency,  and  is  most  uniform  in 
its  action,  when  its  ingredients  are  proportioned  about  as 
follows,  viz: 

Per  cent. 
Potassium  bitartrate 54 

Sodium  bicarbonate 27 

Cornstarcb 19 

Total 100 

Baking  powder  made  according  to  this  formula  will,  upon 
the  decomposition  of  its  acid  and  alkali  ingredients,  yield  to 


16  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

the  dough  the  following  substances  and  proportions  thereof, 
viz: 

Per  ce>t(. 

( 'arbonioacid  gas 12 

Rochelle  salt 69 

Cornstarch 19 

Total 100 

The  carbonic-acid  gas,  after  performing  the  office  of  vesic- 
ulating  and  raising  the  dough,  escapes  in  the  process  of  bak- 
ing; the  Rochelle  salt  remains  in  the  bread,  as  a  foreign  sub- 
stance ;  and  the  starch  is,  in  the  process  of  making  the  dough, 
incorporated  with  the  flour  and,  of  course,  becomes  a  part  of 
the  bread. 

A  baking  powder  made  at  home  according  to  the  following 
formula,  which  is  easily  remembered,  will  keep  as  well,  give 
as  good  results,  and  be  much  cheaper  than  any  of  the  popular 

brands,  viz: 

Oza. 

Cream  of  tartar 8 

Soda 4 

Cornstarch 4 

Total 16 

The  cream  of  tartar  and  soda,  being  chemicals,  should,  to 
insure  purity,  be  procured  from  a  druggist;  the  cornstarch 
may  be  procured  from  a  grocer.  The  ingredients  should  be 
well  mixed  by  hand,  in  a  tray,  and  the  process  completed  by 
passing  the  mixture  through  a  sieve. 

For  Army  use,  baking  powder  should  be  put  up  in  A-pound 
tin  cans,  three  dozen  in  a  case;  or  1-pound  tin  cans,  one  dozen 
or  two  dozen  in  a  case,  as  may  be  required. 

Baking  powder  should  be  stored  in  the  original  eases,  in  a 
cool,  dry  place. 

A  few  tests  for  ereani-of'-tartar  baking  powder  and  BUCh 
adulterations  as  one  might  expecl  to  find  therein,  are  sub- 
joined. 

Solution  Tests. — Pure  cream-of  tartar  baking  powder  will 
dissolve  in  boiling  water  and  will  show  but  a  slight  trace  of 
cloudiness  when  tested  for  lime.  It  should  give  reactions  tor 
tartaric  acid  and  potash,  and  be  free  from  alum,  ammonium 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  17 

salts  in  any  great  quantity,  phosphates,  and  sulphates.     If  the 
filling  is  flour,  ammonia  in  small  quantity  will  be  found. 

Tartaric-acid  Test. — Put  about  a  teaspoonful  of  the  bak- 
ing powder  into  a  beaker,  add  ammonia  water,  agitate,  half 
fill  a  test  tube,  add  a  crystal  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  heat 
slowly.  The  pure  cream  of  tartar,  if  tried  alone,  will  produce 
a  silver  mirror  in#the  tube  and  darken  its  bottom ;  whereas,  if 
tried  in  the  powder,  it  will  give  a  dark,  powdered  deposit, 
dimly  glossy. 

Test  for  Potassium. — Make  a  little  of  the  baking  powder 
into  a  paste,  take  up  a  small  part  of  the  paste  in  the  loop  of  a 
platinum  wire,  hold  it  in  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner  and 
observe  it  through  a  piece  of  cobalt  glass ;  a  violet  color  indi- 
cates the  presence  of  potassium. 

Lime  Test. — Make  a  solution  of  the  baking  powder  with 
water,  filter,  half  fill  a  test  tube,  add  ammonia  until  alkaline, 
then  add  ammonium  oxalate;  if  lime  is  present,  it  will  be 
precipitated  as  a  white  powder.  This  will  show  that  the 
cream  of  tartar  was  not  of  standard  quality. 

Test  for  Alum. — Half  fill  a  test  tube,  as  before,  add  a  few 
drops  of  freshly -prepared  logwood  solution,  acidify  with 
acetic  acid ;  a  yellow  color  proves  its  absence,  and  a  bluish 
purple-red  denotes  its  presence. 

Test  for  Ammonium  Salts.— Mix  a  small  portion  of  the 
powder  in  a  test  tube  with  an  equal  volume  of  slaked  lime 
and  a  little  water,  then  heat,  and  the  ammonia  will  be  recog- 
nized by  the  smell.     This  might  come  from  a  flour  filling. 

Test  for  Phosphates.— Make  up  a  solution,  add  a  few 
drops  to  a  test  tube  containing  molybdate  of  ammonium, 
and  there  will  be  a  fine,  yellow  precipitate  formed  in  the 
tube  if  phosphates  are  present. 

Test  for  Sulphates. — Make  up  a  solution  in  water,  acidify 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  add  barium  chloride ;  a  white  precip- 
itate shows  the  presence  of  sulphates. 

339 3 


18  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

Determination  of  Starch.— Put  about  a  gram  of  the  bak- 
ing powder  into  a  beaker,  cover  with  water,  let  it  digest  until 
action  has  ceased,  filter  and  wash,  remove  residue  into  a  flat- 
bottomed  platinum  crucible  by  means  of  the  wash  bottle,  let 
it  settle,  remove  supernatant  water  with  pipette,  evaporate  at 
212°  F.,  until  constant;  cool  and  weigh.  The  residue  should 
then  be  incinerated,  and  the  weight  of  the  ash  deducted ;  this 
remainder  divided  by  the  weight  of  the  powder  used  gives 
the  percentage  of  filling.  If  not  convenient  to  incinerate, 
deduct  1.0  per  cent  from  residue  and  divide  by  weight  of 
powder  used. 

Determination  of  Carbonic  Acid. — The  usual  method  is 
by  the  absorption  of  the  gas  in  soda-lime  tubes  previously 
weighed,  but  this  is  not  axmlicable  outside  of  a  laboratory ; 
nor  is  it  necessary,  as  an  experienced  purchaser  can  readily 
tell  by  the  following  practicable  and  simple  way:  Having 
ascertained  that  the  acid  ingredient  used  is  cream  of  tartar, 
that  the  powder  is  clean,  unfermenting,  and  without  rancid 
odor,  half  fill  as  many  glasses  with  clear,  tepid  water  as  there 
are  samples,  and  put  a  teaspoonful  in  each  glass,  stirring  it 
rapidly  in  the  water,  and  observe  the  relative  action.  It 
would  be  well  to  make  up  a  powder  .as  follows:  Eight  parts 
cream  of  tartar,  four  parts  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  three 
parts  flour;  thoroughly  mix,  and  take  a  teaspoonful  of  it  as 
a  standard.  This  is  quick,  determinative,  and  practical, 
showing  relative  merits  of  samples  at  a  glance. 

An  exhaustive  and,  in  skillful  hands,  a  really  simple  way 
is  the  following: 

Referring  to  the  apparatus  delineated  in  the  following  figure, 

weigh  in  at  aperture  <i  from  one  to  three  grams  of  the  baking 

powder;  tube  6  should  be  filled  with  sulphuric  acid  toapoinl 

between  c  and  c',  for  the  purpose  of  drying  the  gas  as  it 
escapes;  tube  <l  is  to  be  tilled  three  fourths  full  o\'  hydro- 
chloric acid.     Weigh  the  charged   apparatus  and  admit    the 

hydrochloric  acid  gradually  to  the  powder  by  means  ^\'  a 
stopcock;  the  liberated  gas  passing  through  the  sulphuric 

acid  is  dried  and  escapes  through  h.  The  last  particles  of  gas 
are  drawn  off  by  gently  warming  the  bottle,  and  all  may  be 
removed  by  opening  the  stopper  g  and  Bucking  at  e.     Now 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 


19 


cool  and  reweigh  the  apparatus ;  the  loss  in  weight  is  the  car- 
bonic acid,  and  its  percentage  may  be  noted  as  follows: 

Grams. 
Weight  of  baking  powder  taken 2 

Weight  of  baking  powder  and  apparatus 52 

Weight  after  drawing  off  C02 51.7 

Weigbt  of  C02  in  2  grams  baking  powder 0.3 

~-  X  100  so  15  per  cent. 


After  the  apparatus  is  charged,  it  only  takes  a  few  minutes 
to  make  a  determination. 


20  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

The  methods  herein  given  for  testing  baking  powder  arc 
more  formidable  in  appearance  than  in  practice,  but  they  are 
(mite  conclusive  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 

BASINS,   HAND. 

The  hand  basin  supplied  to  the  Army  is  made  of  stamped 
metal,  XX  tin,  measuring  14  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top  and 
7  inches  at  the  base.  It  is  3£  inches  deep,  with  a  capacity  of  1 
gallon  when  filled  to  the  brim.     It  weighs  about  12  ounces. 

The  tinning  should  be  of  uniform  thickness,  and  should  not 
come  off  easily. 

BEANS. 

Beans  are  the  seeds  of  certain  leguminous  plants,  and  are 
used  for  food  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  habitable  globe ;  they 
are  highly  nutritious,  containing  about  84  per  cent  of  nutri- 
tious matter — wheat  averaging  but  74  per  cent.  They  are, 
however,  deficient  in  carbonaceous  constituents,  and  for  this 
reason  are  almost  invariably  eaten  with  either  bacon  or  pork, 
which  are  rich  in  carbon. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  beans,  differing  in  shape,  size. 
and  color.  The  best  variety  for  Army  use  is  the  small  white 
bean,  generally  known  as  the  "Navy  bean/'  which  is  rather 
flat,  inclined  to  squareness  at  the  ends,  and  brittle  under  the 
teeth;  this  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  "pea  beau," 
which  is  more  nearly  round,  not  as  long,  and  has  not  as  bright 
a  skin. 

Other  beans  are  better  for  boiling,  and  still  others  will  bake 
as  well,  and  nearly  all  cook  more  quickly,  when  tresh.  than 
the  small  white  beans;  but  none  of  them  have  such  a  hard, 
"varnished  "  skin,  or  are  so  little  liable  to  attacks  by  weevils, 
or  to  absorb  moisture.  With  ordinary  care,  tln-y  remain  hard, 
dry.  and  brittle  until  placed  in  water. 

Beans    should    be  plump,    tree   from   sticks    and    dirt,    and, 

especially,  weevils. 

For  close  inspection,  empty  a  tow  sacks  on  a  paulin. 

A  popular  variety  of  beans,  grown  and  iis<-<i  extensively  in 
Central  America,  and  in  Mexico  and  New  Mexico,  is  the  frijole 
or  Mexican  bean.     It  is  of  medium  size  (larger  than  the  Navy 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  21 

bean)  and  of  a  pinkish-brown  color,  turning  to  a  chocolate- 
brown  when  cooked.  As  prepared  in  Mexico,  the  frijole  is  a 
very  savory  and  strong  food.  A  common  method  of  cooking 
frijole  s  is  to  boil  them  very  slowly  and  for  a  long  time  in  soft 
water,  until  they  become  perfectly  tender ;  the  water  is  then 
strained  off  and  the  frijoles  simmered  with  a  little  lard  or  beef 
suet,  and  crushed  chile  pods ;  afterwards  flavored  with  onions 
or  garlic,  and  salted  to  suit  the  taste.  Baked  with  pork,  in 
ordinary  New  England  style,  they  make  a  most  palatable  and 
strengthening  food.  While  a  small  bean  is  best,  size  is  not  so 
important  as  uniformity  in  size,  and  all  not  uniform  in  size 
should  be  rejected,  as  they  do  not  cook  evenly.  They  should 
always  be  purchased  of  the  latest  crop,  if  thoroughly  dry.  If 
they  are  old,  they  require  a  long  soaking  before  boiling.  The 
new  crop  is  hardly  dry  enough  for  acceptance,  except  for  im- 
mediate consumption,  until  about  the  1st  of  November.  New 
.dried  beans  can  generally  be  known  by  their  being  soft  when 
bitten  through.  The  tendency  of  beans  is  to  absorb  moisture, 
and  if  sacked  in  a  damp  condition  they  are  likely  to  become 
musty.  Beans  should  be  taken  out  of  the  sacks  occasionally 
and  dried  to  prevent  them  from  becoming  musty,  damp,  or 
moldy.  Care  must  be  taken  to  promptly  separate  unsound 
beans  from  the  sound.  In  large  wholesale  houses  there  are 
machines  for  this  purpose.  Weevils  and  worms  can  be  removed 
by  exposing  the  beans  to  the  sun,  or  by  subjecting  them  to  a 
low  heat  in  a  bake  oven. 

Musty  beans  should  not  be  issued,  but  should  be  condemned 
without  attempting  to  renovate  them. 

Beans  should  not  be  stored  near  other  stores  that  are  liable 
to  be  affected  with  weevils. 

Beans  are  used  in  the  Army  in  the  dried  form,  and  also  in 
the  canned  form  with  a  small  piece  of  pork,  technically  called 
''baked  beans." 

Beans  ship  best  in  sacks.  For  Army  use,  new  crop,  hand- 
picked,  white  beans,  of  uniform  size,  should  be  purchased. 

By  kiln-drying  is  meant  a  gradual  drying  in  an  oven  or  kiln 
at  a  temperature  of  about  120°  F.,  to  remove  the  water  slowly 
without  scalding  or  burning  the  beans. 


22  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

Beans,  hominy,  and  other  large-grained  articles  are  easily- 
kept  by  storing  in  dry  places,  in  good  packages,  with  frequent 
rolling  or  repiling. 

The  best  general  rule  to  prevent  spoiling  of  farinaceous 
goods  is  to  keep  them  in  well- ventilated,  dry  places,  and  to 
move  them  frequently  to  change  the  exposure,  of  the  pack- 
ages. 

The  new  beans  come  into  market  about  November,  but 
during  December  and  January  they  improve  in  condition  by 
drying  out ;  the  extent  of  the  crop  becomes  known,  and  prices 
are,  thereafter,  more  settled. 

BEANS,  BAKED,  CANNED. 

In  order  to  produce  a  good  article,  good  beans  must  be 
used.  The  quality  of  dried  beans  varies  greatly,  and,  corre- 
spondingly, the  price ;  it  is  therefore  possible  to  put  up  canned 
baked  beans  varying  greatly  in  quality  and  price.  The  most 
careful  packers  buy  only  the  best  dried  beans,  after  having 
tested  their  baking  qualities.  They  should  be  hand-picked 
and  not  too  new. 

The  process  of  making  canned  baked  beans  is  as  follows: 
The  dried  beans  are  washed  and  the  water  thrown  away; 
then  soaked  over  night  and  the  water  thrown  away;  they  are 
then  parboiled  until  soft,  and  the  water  thrown  away.  If  the 
beans  are  to  be  put  up  with  pork,  as  they  should  be  for  Army 
use,  the  pork  is  weighed  out,  1-J  ounces  for  1-pound  cans, 
2),  ounces  for  2-pound  cans,  and  4  ounces  for  3-pound  cans. 
The  pork  is  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  cans  and  the  proper 
quantity  of  beans  put  in;  then  a  certain  amount  of  a  cooked 
solution  of  salt,  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  molasses,  and  some- 
times other  ingredients.  The  bicarbonate  of  soda  Is  used  to 
kill  the  gas  in  the  beans.  The  cans  are  then  sealed  and 
boiled  in  an  open  bath  for  half  an  hour;  then  punctured  to 

let  out  the  steam  and  air;  and  then  sealed  again  and  put  into 

a  retort  and  cooked  for  about  an  hour  at  a  temperature  of 
about  246°  F. 

There  is  no  special  season  for  putting  up  canned  baked 
beans.    Those  put  up  before  December  should   be  old  crop 

beans,  as  the  new-crop  beans  are  then  too  soft.     After  canning 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  23 

they  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  not  warm.  Baked  beans 
not  properly  packed  will  sour,  and,  in  canning,  should  for  the 
same  reason  be  not  carried  over  night  incompletely  canned. 
The  three  sizes  packed  for  the  trade  are  the  1 -pound, 
2-pound,  and  3-pound  cans.  For  Army  use,  the  1 -pound  and 
8-pound  cans  are  the  authorized  sizes — the  former  being  used 
only  for  equalizing  quantities  issued  on  ration  returns. 

BEEF,  CANNED. 

Canned  Corned  Beef. — Canned  corned  beef  is  made  from 
the  plate,  brisket,  flank,  and  chuck  pieces,  but  chiefly  from 
the  latter.  The  meat  is  cured  in  a  pickle  for  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  days ;  it  is  then  put  into  a  vat  and  boiled  for  about 
forty  minutes;  it  is  then  taken  out  of  the  vat,  the  sinews 
removed,  extra  fat,  etc. ,  cut  off,  and  pressed  into  the  cans,  in 
each  of  which  a  little  beef  jelly  has  been  placed,  and  some- 
times, if  the  beef  is  very  lean,  a  little  kidney  fat,  and  the  cans 
weighed — allowance  being  made  in  weighing  for  "blowing 
off  "  when  the  cans  are  vented.  The  cans  are  then  sealed  and 
processed. 

The  methods  of  processing  vary  a  little  with  different 
packers,  but  all  are  similar  and  accomplish  the  same  purpose. 
By  some  the  cans  are  submerged  in  boiling  water ;  by  others 
they  are  lowered  into,  and  partly  immersed  in  a  chemical 
bath,  which  causes  the  cans  to  swell  out  or  bulge.  The  steam 
and  air  are  "blown  off"  through  a  puncture  made  in  the  cap 
of  the  can,  which  is  immediately  after  closed  with  solder. 
When  the  process  is  finished  and  the  cans  cooled,  they  present 
that  shrunken  appearance  which  indicates  that  all  the  air  has 
been  expelled.  Any  can  which  does  not  present  this  appear- 
ance is  thrown  aside.  The  cans  are  then  labeled  and  packed 
for  shipment. 

The  quality  of  canned  corned  beef  is  determined  by  its 
appearance,  which  should  be  bright  and  lively ;  by  its  flavor, 
which  should  not  be  too  salty ;  by  its  freedom  from  sinew  and 
by  its  having  a  due  proportion  of  fat,  which,  through  the  pro- 
cessing, has  a  gelatinous  appearance  on  opening  the  can,  and 
should  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  meat  and  the  can. 


24  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

It  is  packed  in  cases  containing,  each,  twenty -four  of  the 
1 -pound  or  2-pound  cans,  twelve  of  the  4-pound  or  6-pound 
cans,  and  six  of  the  14-pound  cans. 

Canned  Fresh  Beef.— This  article,  like  canned  corned 
beef,  is  made  chiefly  from  chuck  pieces. 

The  meat  is  boiled  about  forty  minutes,  after  which  it  is 
trimmed,  the  pieces  of  sinew  taken  out,  extra  fat,  etc. ,  cut  off, 
and  then  put  into  cans  and  weighed.  A  very  little  salt  is  put 
into  each  can  with  the  meat.  The  cans  are  then  sealed  and 
processed ;  being,  for  this  purpose,  placed  in  a  steam  bath  or 
retort,  as  it  is  termed,  where  they  are  allowed  to  remain  from 
ten  to  thirty  minutes,  according  to  the  size  of  the  can,  which, 
in  addition  to  sterilizing  the  meat,  has  also  the  effect  of 
imparting  to  it  somewhat  the  flavor  of  roast  beef. 

The  quality  of  canned  fresh  beef  is  determined  by  its  appear- 
ance, flavor,  freedom  from  sinew,  etc.,  as  in  corned  beef. 
Good  canned  fresh  beef  should  have  about  the  same  appear- 
ance as  the  second  cut  in'  a  well-cooked  piece  of  roast  beef, 
and  be  pleasant  to  both  taste  and  smell. 

Canned  fresh  beef  is  packed  in  cases  containing,  each, 
twenty-four  1-pound  or  2-pound  cans,  or  twelve  1  pound  or 
6-pound  cans. 

BEEF,  SALT. 

Salt  beef  is  good  only  when  new;  after  a  year  it  becomes 
dry  and  tough,  particularly  if  it  is  made  of  fresh  beet'  of 
inferior  quality. 

Mess  beef,    to  pass  inspection,  should  be  packed    from   the 

dressed  carcasses  of  well-f attened  cattle,  weighing  each  a bout 
800  pounds.    One  carcass,  independently  of  the  parts  excluded, 

should  make  two  barrels  of  mess  beef.  A  barrel  of  mess  beef 
is  composed   Of   six    coarse   pieces,    and    the    balance   of    first 

quality  pieces;  or  of  equal  proportions  of  fore  and  hind  quar 

ter  pieces.      In  all  cases,  the  neck,  shoulder  clod,  and  shin  are 

excluded  from  the  fore  quarter;  and  the- shin  from  the  hind 
quarter.  In  fore-quarter  cuts,  all  in  front  of  the  navel  line 
are  coarse  pieces,  also  the  chuck  ribs  and  the  leather  chuck. 

The  navel  end  may  or  may  not  he  coarse,  depending  upon  the 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  25 

quality  of  the  carcass.  All  other  cuts  in  the  fore  quarter  arc 
first-quality  or  prinie  pieces. 

In  the  hind-quarter  cuts,  the  thin  end  of  the  sirloin,  the 
middle  cut  of  the  sirloin,  and  the  thick  end  of  the  sirloin  are 
first-quality  or  prime  pieces ;  the  thin  flank  may  or  may  not 
be  a  first-quality  piece.  All  other  cuts  of  the  hind  quarter 
are  coarse  pieces. 

The  thick  flank,  cutting  off  with  it  a  triangular  piece  from 
the  leg  round,  makes  the  best  cuts  for  dried  beef.  This  is 
split  once,  making  inner  and  outer  cuts,  the  outer  one  being 
the  best.  The  shoulder-of -mutton  piece  is  made  by  cutting 
and  "lifting"  the  fore  shoulder. 

After  packing,  from  a  large  amount  of  beef,  six  coarse 
pieces  to  the  barrel,  and  the  balance  of  fine  pieces,  making 
mess  beef,  the  remainder  of  the  lot  makes  prime  beef. 

Beef  should  be  cut  square  and  smooth,  into  pieces  of  as 
nearly  8  pounds  in  weight  as  possible.  The  number  of  cuts 
will  depend  upon  the  weight  and  size  of  the  quarter.  After 
cutting  the  beef,  instead  of  packing  it  into  barrels  from  the 
block,  it  is  preferable  to  place  it  into  casks,  with  a  little  fine 
salt  between  the  layers,  and  about  4  ounces  of  saltpeter  to 
every  200  pounds  of  beef.  The  cask  should  then  be  filled  up 
with  brine  and  allowed  to  remain  three  or  four  days,  or  until 
the  blood  is  completely  soaked  out.  When  the  beef  is  taken 
out  to  be  packed,  the  pickle  should  be  allowed  to  drain  off 
before  weighing ;  204  pounds  to  the  barrel  will  then  be  enough ; 
but  if  packed  from  the  block  (a  bad  method),  208  pounds  will 
be  necessary.  If  packed  from  the  block,  the  bloody  brine 
should  be  drawn  off  in  from  four  to  six  days  after  packing, 
and  the  barrels  filled  up  again  with  good,  clean,  strong,  pure 
brine.  In  packing,  the  pieces  should  be  placed  on  their  edges, 
with  salt  between  the  layers,  and  the  barrel  should  be  finished 
with  nice,  smooth,  first-quality  pieces  (plates  and  briskets,  or 
standing  ribs)  and  a  good  capping  of  salt.  Saltpeter  should 
not  be  used  in  any  except  the  first  brine.  For  repacking  beef, 
if  the  old  brine  is  sound,  sweet,  and  free  from  bloody  matter, 
it  is  best  to  use  all,  or,  at  least,  the  greater  part  of  it.  For 
testing  the  strength  and  quality  of  the  brine,  use  an  egg,  etc. , 
as  directed  in  the  article  on  "Pork." 


26  «  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

There  are  great  differences  in  the  quality  of  mess  beef,  as 
sold  in  the  market,  arising  from  differences  in  age,  weight, 
and  kind  of  cattle  slaughtered.  With  mess  pork  it  is  other- 
wise, as  hogs  are  more  uniform  in  size  and  weight. 

For  immediate  issues  to  troops,  corned  beef  answers  exceed- 
ingly well.  In  large  cities  it  can  be  procured  in  the  market, 
though  the  cuts  are  usually  irregular,  and  coarse  pieces  are 
frequently  mixed  with  the  lots  by  the  butchers  who  have  to 
dispose  of  the  surplusage  of  such  meats  accumulating  in  their 
stalls. 

It  is  very  important  that  beef,  as  well  as  pork,  should  not 
be  exposed  to  a  summer  sun.  Oak  barrels  are  much  the  best 
for  beef,  though  white-ash  barrels  are  sweeter  and  make  nearly 
as  strong  packages  as  oak. 

Salt  beef  is  packed  in  barrels  containing  200  pounds  of  beef 
each,  or  in  half  barrels  containing  100  pounds  each.  The  same 
care  as  is  required  in  the  storage,  etc.,  of  salt  pork,  should  be 
taken  in  the  storage,  etc. ,  of  salt  beef.  It  should  be  rolled 
frequently  and  never  exposed  to  the  sun. 

BLACKING,  SHOE. 

There  are  various  formulas  for  the  manufacture  of  shoe 
blacking.  The  principal  ingredients  are  ivory  black  or  bone 
black,  molasses  or  sugar,  vinegar  or  beer  bottoms,  oil  of  vitriol, 
etc.  The  substitution  of  lampblack  for  ivory  black  makes  a 
lower-priced  product,  but  it  is  injurious  to  the  leather. 

Shoe  blacking  should  be  free  from  offensive  odor,  not  inju- 
rious to  the  leather,  and  give  a  smooth  polish. 

It  is  packed  in  tin  boxes  of  different  sizes,  designated  No.  1, 
No.  2,  etc.,  up  to  No.  5,  and  these  are  packed  in  cases  of 
seventy-two  of  No.  1  and  thirty-six  of  each  of  the  other  sizes. 

It  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and  while  in  trans 
portation  should  be  kept  COOl. 

BLUING. 

Bluing,  or  soluble  blue,  is  a  powder  manufactured  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year,  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  and  ferro- 
cyanide  of  Iron;  this  forms  the  Btrictlypnre  bluing,  which 
has  a  very  brilliant,  velvety  appearance. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  27 

When  adulterated,  bluing  has  a  dull  hue.  Sugar,  salt, 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  starch,  etc.,  are  used  to  lessen  its  cost. 
The  first  three  adulterants  can  be  detected  only  by  a  chemical 
analysis.  Starch,  not  being  easily  soluble,  can  be  detected  by 
placing. a  sample  of  the  suspected  bluing  in  water,  when  the 
starch,  if  present,  will  be  precipitated. 

The  original  packages  are  casks  or  barrels.  For  commercial 
purposes,  it  is  repacked  in  packages  of  convenient  size. 

The  best  package  for  Army  use  is  the  2-ounce  dredge  box, 
put  up  in  cases  containing  from  forty-eight  to  one  hundred 
and  forty-four  boxes  each. 

Bluing  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place. 

BROOMS,  WHISK. 

Whisk  brooms  are  classified  according  to  length  and  weight. 

A  9-inch  broom  should  be  made  of  the  best  dwarf  corn, 
strong  and  pliable,  about  9  inches  from  neck  to  end,  and  with 
fine  burl  on  the  outside.  It  is  held  in  shape  by  three  ties  of 
of  strong  waxed  twine  about  £  inch  apart.  The  lower  tie  is 
about  2£  inches  from  the  neck.  The  broom  must  be  perfectly 
solid  at  the  middle  tie,  about  1  inch  thick,  3f  inches  wide,  and 
spread  at  the  end  to  a  width  of  about  6£  inches. 

The  upper  end  of  the  broom  is  fastened  around  a  wooden 
handle  f  inch  in  diameter,  with  six  strands  of  No.  20  tinned 
annealed  wire  nearest  to  the  body  of  the  broom,  four  strands 
at  upper  end  of  handle,  and  five  strands  between  these  two 
fastenings. 

The  end  of  the  handle  is  covered  with  a  tin  cap.  The  brooms 
should  be  of  uniform  weight,  about  three  to  a  pound,  and 
should  be  perfectly  solid  at  the  shoulder  and  where  they  are 
sewed ;  the  cross  stitches  should  not  be  over  f  inch  apart,  and 
the  wire  should  be  wound  tightly  around  the  corn  and  handle. 

The  best  broom  corn  for  making  whisk  brooms  is  of  pea- 
green  coloi,  strong  and  pliable,  clean  and  free  from  seed,  and 
well  filled  out  toward  the  end.  Red-tipped  or  crooked  broom 
corn  should  not  be  used. 

The  8-inch  brooms  have  but  two  ties  of  twine,  $  inch  apart, 
the  lower  one  2£  inches  from  the  neck. 


28  HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

The  shorter  brooms  have  but  one  tie  of  twine,  and  usually 
are  not  very  serviceable — their  fancy  handles  of  bone,  etc., 
becoming  loose  after  a  little  use. 

BRUSHES,  BLACKING. 

Blacking  brushes,  of  three  kinds  or  styles,  officially  desig- 
nated as  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3,  are  furnished  for  the  use  of 
the  Army. 

No.  1  is  a  dauber  and  polisher  combined,  and  has  a  handle. 
The  block  of  the  dauber  is  made  of  whitewood  with  a  veneer- 
ing of  mahogany  on  the  back.  It  is  circular  in  form  and  3 
inches  in  diameter.  The  tufts  of  bristles  are  in  concentric 
circular  rows  and  are  cemented  into  holes  in  the  block.  The 
bristles  are  1£  inches  long,  measuring  from  the  face  of  the 
block.  The  block  of  the  polisher  is  also  made  of  white w<  ><  >d 
and  has  a  veneering  of  mahogany  on  the  back.  It  is  of  oblong 
shape  with  rounded  ends.  It  is  7  inches  long,  3  inches  wide, 
and  f  inch  thick.  The  bristles  are  in  tufts,  in  8  by  L8  rows, 
and  the  tufts  are  cemented  into  holes  in  the  block.  The  outer 
row  is  made  of  horsehair  instead  of  hog  bristles.  The  bristles 
are  1  inch  long,  measured  from  the  face  of  the  block.  The 
handle  and  dauber  are  securely  fastened  to  the  block  of  the 
polisher  by  means  of  screws. 

No.  2  is  a  polisher  only,  and  has  no  handle.  The  block  is 
made  of  white-pine  wood  with  a  veneering  of  wakrat  on  the 
back.  It  is  oblong  in  shape  with  rounded  ends.  It  i 
inches  long,  2f  inches  wide,  and  g  inch  thick.  The  bristles 
arc  in  tuftsin  7  by  IS  rows,  and  the  tufts  are  cemented  into 
the  block.  The  outer  row  is  of  horsehair  instead  of  hog 
bristles.  The  bristles  are  i  inch  long,  measured  from  the  face 
of  the  block. 

No.  3  is  a  dauber  only,  and  has  a  handle.  The  block  is 
made  of  black  walnut  wood.  The  block  and  handle  air  in  one 
piece,  7  inches  long  and    .1  inch   thick.      The  block  is  2  inches 

in  diameter,  and  the  handle  is  •"">  inches  long.    The  bristles  are 
in  tufts  in  concentric  circular  rows,  and  are  1  '  inches  long. 

Blacking  brushes  for  Army  use  are  generally  made  of 
American  bristles,  but  when  they  are  not  available  of  proper 
quality,  German  bristles  are  used. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  29 

Blacking  brushes  are  liable  to  damage  by  moths.  They  are 
packed  by  the  manufacturer,  in  moth  powder,  known  by  dif- 
ferent names,  as  tarine,  campholine,  etc. 

They  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  six  brushes  each,  and 
twelve  cartons  are  packed  in  a  case. 

BRUSHES,  HAIR,  LARGE. 

Hairbrushes  are  of  numerous  varieties.  They  are  mostly 
imported  from  France  and  England,  and  while  they  are  some- 
times made  with  solid  backs,  they  are  usually  not  so  made. 

The  large  hairbrush  purchased  for  the  Army  is  a  13-row, 
solid-back  brush  of  bleached  bristles,  arranged  in  tufts,  I  inch 
long,  cemented  separately  into  the  block.  The  blocks  are 
made  of  different  kinds  of  wood,  among  them  boxwood  and 
olive  wood. 

They  are  packed  two  in  a  box  and  seventy-two  in  a  case. 

BRUSHES,   HAIR,  SMALL. 

The  general  remarks  on  "Brushes,  hair,  large,"  apply  to 
"Brushes,  hair,  small." 

The  small  hairbrush  furnished  the  Army  is  a  9-row,  solid- 
back  brush,  made  of  bleached  American  bristles,  arranged  in 
tufts,  |  inch  long,  cemented  separately  into  the  block.  The 
block  is  made  of  olive  wood. 

They  are  packed  two  in  a  box,  seventy-t  wo  in  a  case. 

BRUSHES,  NAIL. 

Bone -handle  bristle  nailbrushes  only  are  kept  by  the  Sub- 
sistence Department  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted  men  of 
the  Army. 

They  are  not  manufactured  in  the  United  States,  but  are 
made  in  Paris  and  London,  and  are  of  endless  variety.  Those 
used  by  the  Army  are  6f  inches  long,  and  are  made  of  bleached 
Russian  bristles,  £  inch  long,  measured  from  the  face  of  the 
block,  and  are  arranged  in  small  tufts,  in  10  by  24  rows. 
The  distal  end  of  the  handle  is  fashioned  into  a  nail  cleaner. 

The  handle  and  block  should  be  well  finished,  and  the 
bristles  even,  stiff,  and  well  fastened  into  the  block. 

They  are  packed  in  cartons  of  two  sizes,  containing  six  and 
twelve  brushes,  respectively. 


30  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

BRUSHES,  TOOTH. 

Toothbrushes  are  made  of  bleached  German  or  Russian 
bristles.  The  bristles  are  fastened  in  various  ways,  each 
manufacturer  having  his  own  method. 

The  quality  of  toothbrushes  is  determined  by  the  quality 
of  the  bristles,  etc. 

Toothbrushes  are,  with  respect  to  the  stiffness  of  the  bristles, 
designated  as  "hard"  and  "soft." 

They  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  twelve  brushes  each. 

BUTTER. 

Butter  is  made  in  June  and  October.  That  made  in  Octo- 
ber js  thought  to  be  the  best.  It  is  usual,  when  butter  is  pur- 
chased for  the  Army,  to  see  that  it  is  not  inferior  to  the  grade 
"extra"  of  the  mercantile  exchanges. 

If  butter  is  obtained  in  wooden  packages,  it  is  essential  that 
they  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned  and  free  from  odor. 

Creamery  butter  is,  also,  put  up  in  hermetically  sealed  tin 
cans  of  several  sizes,  but  the  3-pound  size  is  preferable  for 
Army  use.  This  has  proved  a  success  for  shipment  to  distant 
Army  posts. 

It  is  put  up  in  cases  containing  twenty-four  cans  each. 

Where  butter  is  consumed  near  the  point  of  supply,  the 
usual  tub  of  58  or  60  pounds  is  a  satisfactory  package.     When 
the  demand  is  not  large  enough  to  justify  the  purchae 
butter  in  tubs  for  use  at  posts  near  the  point  of  supply,  firkins 
containing  about  3(5  pounds  should  be  purchased. 

In  buying  batter  the  trier  should  be  run  from  one  end  of 
the  package  to  the  other.  The  "drawing "should  be  uniform 
in  grain,  texture,  and  color.  The  color  should  be  a  rich  golden 
hue,  and  the  odor  and  taste  sweet. 

Butter,  during  transportation  and  in  store,  should  not  be 
subjected  to  a  temperature  greater  than  70  P.  It  should  not 
be  kept  long  in  store,  but,  temperature  being  considered,  the 
supply  should  be  renewed  frequently. 

The  adulterations  are  lard,   buttermilk,  and  salt.      Butter 
should  not,  as  a  rule,  contain  more  than  l£  to  2  per  cei 
salt. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  31 

The  knife  used  for  cutting  butter  out  of  a  package  should 
be  washed  every  day  in  boiling-hot  water,  as  otherwise  the 
butter  adhering  to  it  will  become  rancid  and  contaminate 
the  butter  in  the  package. 

BUTTONS. 

Buttons,  Collar,  Gilt. — The  Army  is  furnished  with  two 
kinds  of  gilt  collar  buttons.  They  are  double  gold  plated, 
with  pearl  back ;  one  with  hinge  and  the  other  without  hinge. 
The  gilt  should  be  evenly  put  on.  The  button  should  be  well 
made,  the  hinge  strong,  and  the  plating  good. 

They  come  twelve  buttons  to  the  card,  put  up  in  cases  as 
may  be  ordered. 

Buttons,  Trouser,  Large.— That  furnished  the  Army  is  a 
metallic  button,  one  of  the  cheapest  varieties,  but  well  made. 

In  purchasing  buttons,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  they 
are  well  finished,  so  that  they  will  not  cut  the  thread.  This 
is  a  danger  to  be  guarded  against  with  all  metallic  buttons. 

They  may  be  packed  in  small  cartons  of  1  gross  each  (four 
paper  packages  of  thirty-six  buttons  each). 

Buttons,  Trouser,  Small. — The  preceding  remarks  on 
"  Buttons,  trouser,  large,"  are  applicable  to  " Buttons,  trouser, 
small" — the  only  difference  being  in  size. 

CANDLES. 

Candles  are  made  from  tallow,  by  saponification,  eliminat- 
ing all  of  the  glycerin  and  a  portion  of  the  red  oil,  according 
to  the  quality  of  the  candle,  leaving  stearic  acid  in  combina- 
tion, out  of  which  the  candle  is  made. 

The  stearic-acid  candle,  the  best  for  Army  use,  is  made 
wholly  from  stearic  acid,  which  is  run  into  molds  with  a 
wick  varying  in  size  from  forty-eight  to  fifty-one  strands, 
according  to  size  of  candle. 

Candles  are  usually  white,  and  have  a  crystalline  fracture 
and  very  smooth  surface.  They  may  be  sometimes  not  quite 
white,  but  this  does  not  affect  their  quality.  The  size  of  the 
wick  is  determined  by  the  circumference  of  the  candle. 

If  carelessly  molded,  there  will  be  sputtering  in  the  blaze, 
indicating  the  presence  of  water.     The  quality  of  candles  is 


IBRA^ 


32  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

indicated  by  the  rate  of  burning  and  the  brightness  of  the 
blaze.  The  "cup"  should  be  dry  while  burning,  showing 
that  the  wick  is  of  proper  size  and  that  the  stock  is  properly 
consumed. 

The  commercial  sizes  are  eight  to  the  pound  and  six  to 
fourteen  ounces.  Full-weight  sixes  only,  in  40-pound  boxes, 
are  furnished  to  the  Army. 

Lantern  candles  are  manufactured  in  the  same  way  as  ordi- 
nary candles.  They  are  made  ten  to  the  pound,  and,  for  Army 
use,  are  packed  in  boxes  containing  40  pounds  each. 

Candles  will  stand  any  kind  of  storage,  need  no  particular 
care  in  transportation,  and  will  keep  equally  well  in  all 
climates. 

CAN    OPENERS. 

The  can  openers  furnished  the  Army  should  be  strong,  well 


finished,  and  well  tempered. 


CHAMOIS   SKINS. 

Very  few  "chamois  "  skins  are  really  made  from  the  skin  of 
the  chamois.  They  are  tanned  goat  and  sheep  skins — the 
tanning  being  done  in  Greece  and  Turkey. 

The  tanning  should  be  well  done,  the  skins  smooth  on  both 
sides  and  free  from  thin  places. 

They  are  imported  direct  from  England  in  kips  of  thirty 
skins. 

Those  furnished  for  the  Army  are  from  2  to  2  \  feel  square. 

CHEESE,   EDAM. 

Edam  cheese  is  made  in  the  northern  part  of  Holland.  The 
best  is  made  in  Summer  and  is  called  "grass"  cheese.      The 

fresh  cow's  milk  is  filtered,  and  the  rennet  added  t<>  it.  After 
the  milk  has  curdled,  the  whey  is  carefully  separated  from 
the  mass,  the  curd  is  thoroughly  kneaded  and  then  put  into 
molds  and  slightly  pressed,  so  as  to  remove  the  whey  that 
may  be  left  in  it.  This  process  has  to  be  repeated  until  the 
curd   is  completely  dry,  when  it  is  wrapped   IB  a  linen  cloth, 

and  there  kept  from  eight  to  ten  days,  or  until  the  cheese  is 
somewhat  firm.  Thm  the  cloth  is  removed  and  the  cheese  is 
put  into  a  salt  lye  for  some  time.     Further  salting  is  done  by 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  33 

strewing  dry  salt  on  the  cheese,  until  it  has  taken  up  salt 
enough  to  preserve  it  from  decay.  At  this  point  the  cheese 
is  put  into  a  vessel,  washed  with  whey,  and  scraped  until 
the  white  crust  has  been  removed,  and  while  still  in  that  con- 
dition the  cheese  is  brought  into  a  cool  room  and  laid  upon 
boards,  where  it  is  frequently  turned  around ;  while  there  it 
obtains  the  fine  yellow  color  peculiar  to  Edam  cheese.  The 
ripening  process  in  the  cool  room  lasts  from  two  to  three 
months.  If  the  cheese  is  intended  for  exportation  it  is  rub- 
bed with  linseed  oil,  so  as  to  make  the  rind  hard  and  bright. 
It  is  often  dyed  by  the  use  of  the  sap  of  the  Croton  tinctorium, 
a  plant  cultivated  in  Southern  France.  Edam  cheeses  are  of 
globular  shape  and  weigh  from  36  to  48  pounds  per  dozen. 

CHOCOLATE. 

The  chocolate  of  commerce  is  made  from  the  seeds  of  the 
cocoa  tree  (Theobroma  cacao),  which  is  indigenous  to  South 
America,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies.  Chocolate  is  made  on 
an  extensive  scale  in  France,  where  its  manufacture  has  per- 
haps attained  the  highest  state  of  perfection,  but  an  excellent 
quality  is  made  by  several  well-known  manufacturers  in  this 
country. 

The  process  of  manufacturing  chocolate  is  as  follows,  viz : 
The  cocoa  seeds,  after  being  sifted  and  picked,  are  gently 
roasted  until  the  required  color  and  aroma  are  developed. 
The  relations  of  color  and  taste  to  the  roasting  of  the  seeds 
make  the  roasting,  from  beginning  to  end,  one  of  the  most 
delicate  processes  of  the  manufacture.  After  cooling,  the 
seeds  are  lightly  crushed  and  winnowed,  to  separate  the  husks 
from  the  kernels.  The  product  is  next  reduced  to  a  homo- 
geneous paste  by  trituration,  at  the  temperature  of  130°  F.,  in 
a  mortar  or  a  mill.  The  paste  is  then  mixed  with  from  one- 
half  to  an  equal  weight  of  sugar  and  a  small  quantity  of 
extract  of  vanilla  added  for  flavoring. 

The  paste  is  then  run  into  molds  and  formed  into  cakes  or 
tablets. 

Chocolate  is  usually  made  in  |-pound  cakes.  Two  i-pound 
cakes  are  put  up  in  a  paper  package,  and  twelve  of  these  pack- 
ages, weighing  12  pounds,  are  packed  in  a  box. 


?A  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

Chocolate  is  largely  adulterated  and,  therefore,  should  be 
purchased  from  a  reliable  manufacturer  only. 

Good,  unadulterated  chocolate  is  compact,  brittle,  and  of  a 
reddish-brown  color.  It  should  break  under  only  a  moderate 
strain,  and  the  fracture  should  be  clean  and  show  a  fine  grain. 
When  worked  into  a  paste,  it  should  be  perfectly  homogene- 
ous. It  should  melt  easily  in  the  mouth,  and  have  a  pleasant, 
fresh  flavor.  It  should  dissolve  readily  in  milk  or  water,  leav- 
ing no  residuum. 

The  quality  of  chocolate  is  determined  by  comparing  its 
infusion  with  the  infusion  of  a  sample  of  known  standard 
quality. 

To  make  infusions  of  different  kinds  of  chocolate,  proceed 
as  follows,  viz : 

Plain  Chocolate. — Scrape  fine  1  ounce  of  the  chocolate, 
mix  with  1  ounce  of  sugar,  and  add  boiling  water  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  dissolve  both  chocolate  and  sugar.  Then  add  boil- 
ing milk  until  the  preparation  reaches  the  volume  of  1  pint. 
The  infusion  is  then  ready  for  use  as  a  beverage,  although 
some  persons  subject  it  to  a  boiling  of  from  five  to  ten  minutes. 

If  a  lighter  infusion  is  desired,  use  only  boiling  water  and 
no  milk. 

Vanilla  Chocolate. — Use  a  porcelain  or  an  earthenware  or 
an  enameled-ware  pot;  for  each  cup  of  infusion  required  to  be 
made,  pour  into  the  pot  one  cup  of  cold  milk  and  break  (do  not 
grate  or  scrape)  into  it  one  of  the  six  tablets  into  which  every 
i -pound  package  of  vanilla  chocolate  is  divided;  stir  briskly 
over  a  bright  fire  until  the  chocolate  is  thoroughly  diss<  >lved  ; 
keep  on  stirring  until  the  infusion  boils  up  once,  when  it  is 
ready  for  use  as  a  beverage.  The  pot  used  for  making  choc- 
olate should  be  used  exclusively  for  that  purpose.  In  stirring, 
it  is  desirable  to  use  a  wooden  spoon,  and  not  a  nickel  or  silver 
plated  spoon,  as  the  flavor  of  the  infusion  is  susceptible  to 
injury  by  the  use  of  a  metallic  spoon.  It  is  quite  important 
to  know  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  milk,  or  milk  and  water, 
and  not  water  alone,  in  making  chocolate,  as,  when  it  is  made 
with  water  alone,  it  has  aflat,  insipid  taste,  and  is  deficient 
in  nourishment. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  35 

Chocolate  differs  from  cocoa,  another  preparation  from  cocoa 
seeds,  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  in  that  the  cocoa  butter  has 
been  extracted  from  the  latter. 

Chocolate  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place  and  should  not 
be  exposed  to  the  sun.  It  is  not  advisable  to  keep  chocolate 
on  hand  any  great  length  of  time,  although  it  is  known  to 
have  kept  in  good  condition,  when  well  taken  care  of,  for 
eighteen  months. 

CIGARS. 

For  cigars,  the  finest  and  most  delicate  tobacco  should  be 
used.  Cigars  are  made  by  hand,  or  by  hand  and  machine — 
the  finest  by  the  first  method. 

The  best  tobacco  for  making  cigars  comes  from  Cuba ;  the 
Vuelta  Aba  jo,  so  called  from  the  locality  where  it  is  grown, 
being  the  best.  The  Patridas  and  Vuelta  Arriba,  from  Cuba, 
are  also  largely  used,  and,  in  some  seasons,  the  former  is 
nearly,  or  quite,  as  good  as  the  Vuelta  Abajo. 

Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  and  Ohio  furnish  "seed-leaf" 
tobacco,  raised  from  Havana  seed,  from  which  the  cheaper 
domestic  cigars  are  chiefly  made. 

Sumatra  furnishes  excellent  wrappers,  which  are  used  for 
most  domestic  cigars  of  the  better  grade. 

The  Philippine  Islands  produce  the  Manila  cigars  and  che- 
roots, which  are  cigars  with  both  ends  cut  square. 

A  "  Clear-Havana "  cigar  has  Havana  filler,  binder,  and 
wrapper.  A  ' '  Seed-and-Havana "  cigar  has  Havana  filler, 
Connecticut -seed  binder  and  wrapper,  or  Havana  filler  and 
binder  and  Connecticut-seed  wrapper.  A  "clear-seed"  cigar 
has  Connecticut -seed  filler,  binder,  and  wrapper. 

Some  cigars  are  made  while  the  tobacco  is  sufficiently 
"green,"  i.  e.,  has  in  it  sufficient  natural  moisture  to  admit  of 
handling,  but  generally  it  is  moistened  before  handling. 

The  core  consists  of  fillers,  laid  longitudinally  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  form  the  bulk  of  the  cigar;  these  are  closely 
rolled,  then  enveloped  with  the  inside  wrapper  or  binder, 
which  is  as  long  as  the  cigar  and  wide  enough  to  fairly  inclose 
it ;  then  the  wrapper  is  put  on  spirally  from  the  larger  to  the 
smaller  end,  where  it  is  twisted  to  a  fine  point. 


36  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

The  fillers  give  the  flavor  to  a  cigar;  the  wrapper,  and  the 
skill  with  which  it  is  put  on,  give  it  style.  The  best  tobacco 
for  wrappers  is  neutral,  i.  e.,  has  no  pronounced  taste. 

After  being  "formed,"  either  by  hand  or  molds,  cigars  are 
sorted  according  to  color  and  size,  and  packed  in  boxes  con- 
taining twenty-five,  fifty,  or  one  hundred  each,  and  desig- 
nated, respectively,  -fa,  ^,  and  ^  meaning  one-fortieth,  one- 
twentieth,  and  one-tenth  of  a  thousand  cigars,  respectively. 

For  shipment,  the  boxes  are  packed  in  cases. 

The  strength  of  cigars,  which  varies  with  each  character  of 
tobacco,  is  indicated  by  the  color,  the  lightest  being  generally 
the  mildest. 

The  colors  of  cigars,  from  light  to  dark,  are  as  follows,  viz : 
Claro,  Colorado -Claro,  Colorado,  Colorado  Maduro,  Maduro, 
and  Oscuro;  and  the  sizes  are  determined  by  the  length, 
which  ranges  from  4  to  5  inches. 

As  the  kind  of  cigar  preferred  is  largely  a  matter  of  taste. 
depending  upon  familiarity,  no  rule  for  selection  can  be  given. 
Outside  appearance  is  of  little  value  in  determining  the  qual- 
ity; a  good  cigar,  when  split  longitudinally,  should  be  found 
free  from  dust,  small  pieces,  large  stems,  and  musty  tobacco. 

The  style  or  size  and  shape  is  indicated  by  terms  common 
to  all  makers,  which  are  usually  found  upon  the  front  of  the 
box.  In  procuring  cigars  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  name  ni' 
the  manufacturer  or  factory  and  the  quality  of  the  cigar,  as 
simply  calling  for  a  "Concha,"  etc.,  would  mean  only  a  cigar 
of  that  shape  and  style  and  give  no  definite  information  as  fco 
what  was  needed. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  most  prominent  names  used 
to  designate  the  sizes  and  shapes: 

Concha. — The  word  means  "a  shell."  The  cigars  were 
named  such  after  a  former  captain  general  <>f  Cuba  named 
( !oncha.     They  are  usually  4j  inches  long. 

Concha  Fina.— A  fine  Concha. 

Concha  ESPECIAL.— Finer  finish  than  a  < Amelia,  and  a  little 
Larger  size,  principally  in  length. 

LONDRES. — One  of  the  first  styles  made:  the  word  means 
"London,"  the  cigar  so  named  because  of  its  popularity  ill 
England. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  37 

Regalia.—  Means  "present"  or  "gift,"  designating  a  cigar 
of  a  finer  grade  of  tobacco  than  is  used  for  Londres  and  Con- 
chas. 

Regalia  del  Rey,  or  King  Regalia,  generally  packed  in 
bundles  of  50  each,  of  medium  size,  4±  inches  long. 

Regalia  Reina,  or  Queen  Regalia,  a  smaller  size. 

Chica.—  A  smaller-sized  cigar  than  Regalia,  packed  in  two 
bundles. 

Regalia  Comme  il  faut. — Indicates  a  very  handsome  cigar, 
finished  in  a  better  manner  than  a  Concha,  and  made  from 
very  fine  tobacco. 

Regalia  Britannica.— A  thick,  heavy  cigar,  5  inches  long, 
weighing  18  pounds  or  over  to  the  thousand. 

Dam  as.— A  very  small  cigar,  about  2  inches  long. 

Dam  as  Imperiales. — Very  fine  tobacco,  well  made;  also 
small. 

Panetelas. — "Sponge  Cake;"  a  long,  slim  cigar,  that  has 
been  heavily  pressed. 

Non  Plus  Ultra. — Large,  handsomely  made  from  finest 
tobacco. 

Cortada.— Cigar  cut  off  at  both  ends. 

Habano. — Habano-shaped  or  pointed  cigar. 

Napoleons  and  Imperiales  are  very  large  cigars,  fancy 
sizes,  but  little  used. 

Excepcionales. — A  very  large  cigar,  similar  to  Regalia 
Britannica. 

Opera. — Small  after-dinner  or  theater  cigar,  about  3£  inches 
long. 

Princesas.— Small  cigar,  similar  to  and  thinner  than  an 
Opera. 

Cigars  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  moderately  dry  place, 
and  should  not  be  exposed  to  artificial  heat.  Consumers  can 
moisten,  or  "ripen,"  them  to  suit. 


38  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

CINNAMON. 

The  cinnamon  of  commerce  is  prepared  from  the  inner  bark 
of  the  La  urns  einnamomum,  a  small  evergreen  tree  which  is  a 
native  of  Ceylon,  but  is  cultivated  in  South  America  and  the 
West  India  Islands. 

Ceylon  is  the  source  of  supply  of  the  cinnamon  of  commerce. 
The  amount  which  comes  to  this  country  is  so  small,  however, 
as  to  be  almost  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  amount 
of  wild  cinnamon  (Lanrus  cassia)  or  cassia,  which  comes 
from  the  coasts  of  Siam  and  Cochin- China. 

The  cinnamon  tree,  when  cultivated,  is  kept  cut  down  close 
to  the  ground,  and  the  fresh,  new  shoots  only  are  allowed  to 
grow  until  they  attain  a  height  of  from  5  to  6  feet,  and  are 
then  about  £  inch  in  diameter ;  these  dimensions  are  obtained 
in  about  two  years,  and  the  shoots  are  usually  free  from 
branches,  except  near  the  top.  They  are  then  cut  close  to  the 
ground  and  the  grayish  outside  bark  carefully  cut  off. 

The  inner  bark,  which  is  of  a  yellowish-red  color,  is  then 
ripped  up  longitudinally  with  a  knife,  and  gradually  loosened 
until  it  can  be  taken  off.  When  taken  off,  it  is  spread  in 
the  sun  to  dry,  when  it  curls  up  into  the  quill-like  form  of 
the  commercial  article. 

There  aire  usually  two  crops  of  cinnamon  gathered  in  Ceylon, 
one  in  May  and  the  other  in  November — the  first  being  the 
larger  of  the  two,  and  more  easily  gathered,  as  the  Bap  is 
more  abundant  at  that  time  and  allows  the  bark  to  be  detached 
with  greater  facility. 

Wild  cinnamon  or  cassia  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  real  cinnamon,  but  as  there  is  much  of  the  former 
gathered  there  is  consequently  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
thickness  of  the  bark  and  in  the  perfection  <>f  its  preparation, 

two  distinguish  inn'  features  of  Ceylon  or  real  cinnamon,  which 
account  for  the  higher  price  of  the  latter. 

The  bark  of  cinnamon  is  scarcely  thicker  than  drawing 
paper,  and  breaks  with  an  uneven  and  fibrous  margin.     Bach 

Stick  consists  of  eighl  or  more  pieces  or  quills  of  hark  inserted 

one  within  the  other.    Cassia  bark  is  very  much  thicker  than 

cinnamon  bark,  and  breaks  short,  without  splintering. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  39 

When  in  the  powdered  form,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
distinguish  cinnamon  from  cassia ;  and,  when  they  are  mixed 
together,  it  is  impossible  to  do  so  without  resort  to  a  chemical 
test. 

When  powdered  bark  is  treated  with  a  tincture  of  iodine, 
if  it  is  cinnamon,  there  is  little  effect  perceptible;  if  it  is 
cassia,  a  deep  blue  tint  is  produced ;  and  if  it  is  a  mixture  of 
the  two,  the  intensity  of  the  coloration  will  indicate  the  pro- 
portion of  cassia. 

CLOVES. 

Cloves  are  the  dried  flower  buds  of  the  Caryophyllus  aro- 
maticus,  an  evergreen  tree  which  grows  in  the  Moluccas, 
Mauritius,  Sumatra,  and  nearly  all  the  Spice  Islands  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  in  the  West  Indies.  The  larger  part  of 
the  commercial  supply,  however,  comes  from  Amboyana,  on 
the  island  of  the  same  name. 

The  cloves  of  commerce  are  not,  as  many  suppose,  the  fruit 
of  the  clove  tree,  but  are,  as  above  stated,  the  dried  flower 
buds.  The  ripe  fruit  resembles  in  shape  a  small  olive ;  it  is  of 
a  dark  red  color,  and  is  slightly  aromatic  in  flavor.  It  some- 
times appears  in  commerce,  in  a  dried  state,  under  the  name 
of  "  Mother-of -cloves. "  Mother-of -cloves  is  not  so  pungent 
as  the  flower  buds.  These  flower  buds,  when  first  gathered, 
are  of  a  reddish  color,  but  in  the  drying  of  them,  which  is 
partly  done  by  wood  fires  and  partly  by  the  sun,  they  turn  to 
the  familiar  deep-brown  color  of  the  cloves  of  commerce. 

The  flower  buds  are  sometimes  deprived  of  their  oil  before 
being  put  on  the  market,  and  the  oil  sold  as  the  oil  of  cloves. 
Cloves  made  by  subjecting  the  flower  buds  to  this  treatment 
are  not  much  impaired  in  taste,  but  are  very  deficient  in  odor. 
Such  cloves  are  not  suitable  for  Army  use. 

Ground  cloves  are  largely  adulterated  with  clove  stems, 
allspice,  flour,  etc. 

For  Army  use,  ground  cloves  only,  put  up  in  4-ounce  tins, 
are  used. 

CODFISH. 

The  cod  is  pre-eminently  the  fish  of  commerce.  The  cods 
inhabit  the  waters  of  the  North  Pacific,  North  Atlantic,  and 


40  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

Arctic  Oceans,  and  are  seldom  found  in  large  numbers  south 
of  36°  north  latitude. 

They  never  visit  fresh  water  and  live  mostly  in  deep  water, 
visiting  the  shallow  waters  of  the  coasts  and  banks  only  for 
the  purpose  of  spawning  and  raising  the  young  fish. 

For  generations  the  cod  fisheries  off  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador  have  furnished  the  civilized  world  with  codfish,  and 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States  with  a  training 
school  for  sailors. 

These  fishing  grounds  are  still  the  most  productive,  but 
those  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  Bering  Sea,  and  their  adjacent 
waters,  are  of  importance. 

San  Francisco  and  Seattle  are  the  only  ports  on  our  Pacific 
Coast  from  which  the  codfishing  industry  is  prosecuted. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  hake,  haddock,  cusk,  etc.,  are  some- 
times sold  as  codfish;  this  swindle,  however,  has  not  yet  been 
practiced  in  the  Pacific  States,  and  probably  never  will  be,  as 
the  substitute  fishes  are  not  found  in  the  adjacent  waters. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  codfish  season  lasts  during  the 
year;  but  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  the  best  catches  are  made4  on 
the  George's  Banks  in  January  and  February ;  on  the  Western 
Banks  in  May  and  June;  and  on  the  Grand  Banks  from  May 
to  November. 

Cods  are  caught  with  hook  and  line  from  the  sides  of  the 
vessels,  but  principally  from  dories  sent  out  from  the  vessels. 
The  dories  are  small  boats,  about  15  feet  long,  and  are  managed 
by  a  single  sailor-fisherman.  The  sailor-fisherman  has  two 
lines,  and  as  soon  as  he  has  a  load  of  fish  they  are  taken  to  the 
vessel  or  the  shore  station  and  immediately  dressed  and  salted. 
'Hie  sail  LS  carefully  Sprinkled  Upon  each  fish. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  codfish,  but  those  caught  on 
the  Grand  Banks  and  George's  Banks  are  the  best,  and  they 
are  known  in  the  market  as  the  "Grand  Banks"  codfish  and 
"George's-Banks"  codfish,  respectively,  the  former  being  con 
sidered  the  better  of  the  two,     They  are  graded,  according  to 

size,  into  large  and  medium.      The  large  size  should  measure 
22  inches,  and   the  medium  not    less  than    18  inches,  from    the 

tip  of  the  tail  to  the  nape  of  the  neck. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES  41 

The  codfish  has  some  marked  characteristics  from  which  it 
can  be  distinguished  from  its  congeners.  The  longitudinal 
stripe  running  along  its  side  from  gills  to  tail  is  a  faint,  white 
line ;  its  scales  are  quite  small ;  its  tail  is  square,  and  its  skin 
is  spotted.  When  skinned,  preparatory  to  packing  in  fancy 
forms,  it  is  very  difficult,  except  for  an  expert,  to  distinguish 
its  meat  from  the  meats  of  other  similar  fishes.  With  some 
experience,  one  may  be  able  to  distinguish  it  by  its  color. 
The  meat  of  the  Grand-Banks  codfish  is  of  a  greenish-white 
color,  and  that  of  the  George's  Banks,  white,  while  that  of 
the  haddock  is  a  bright  white,  and  that  of  the  cusk,  white 
with  a  pinkish  cast. 

They  are  put  up  for  market  in  several  styles,  mainly 
unskinned  and  whole ;  skinned  and  cut  up ;  and  shredded  in 
bricks. 

If  codfish  are  "new,"  that  is,  have  not  been  kept  in 
"kench"and  pickle  more  than  three  months,  and  are  well 
dried  and  kept  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  they  will  keep  well 
for  from  three  to  six  months ;  if  spread  out,  they  will  easily 
keep  in  good  condition  for  a  year  or  more.  A  moist  heat  will 
cause  codfish  to  "sweat,"  after  which  it  will  spoil  in  a  few 
weeks.  Dry  heat  or  exposure  to  the  sun  will  ' '  burn  "  the  fish, 
but  while  this  does  not  spoil  its  eating  qualities,  it  spoils  its 
keeping  qualities  and  causes  the  fiber  to  become  tender  and 
crumble,  as  if  it  were  overcooked. 

The  growing  of  a  red  fungus  on  codfish  is  an  indication  that 
it  is  spoiling,  and  when  thus  affected  it  should  not  be  pur- 
chased. The  growing  of  this  red  fungus  can  be  prevented  by 
the  use  of  a  mixture  of  boracic  acid  and  salt,  called  "Preserv- 
aline,"  a  German  discovery,  which  prevents  decay  and  does 
not  especially  affect  the  taste  or  flavor  of  the  fish.  It  should 
be  used  on  all  codfish  shipped  in  warm  weather,  or,  at  all  sea- 
sons, on  all  codfish  shipped  to  places  located  in  warm  climates. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  codfish  is  new,  firm,  and 
white,  and  that  it  readily  softens  when  placed  in  cold  water 
and  the  latter  brought  nearly  to  the  boiling  point  and  kept  at 
that  temperature  for  an  hour. 

339 6       * 


42  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

Codfish  being  of  a  perishable  nature,  no  more  of  it  should 
be  kept  on  hand  than  necessity  requires.  It  should  be  stored 
in  a  cool  basement  or  cellar,  and,  if  it  is  required  to  be  trans- 
ported in  warm  weather,  it  should  be  in  refrigerator  cars,  or, 
if  in  a  vessel,  in  the  hold.  It  should  never  be  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

COFFEE,    ISSUE. 

The  use  of  coffee  was  introduced  into  Persia  from  Ethiopia 
as  early  as  A.  D.  785,  and  into  Arabia,  from  Persia,  about  the 
fifteenth  century  of  our  era.  In  A.  D.  1554,  coffee  was  pub- 
licly sold  in  Constantinople,  and  reached  Venice  in  A.  D.  1615. 
The  first  coffeehouse  was  opened  in  London,  A.  D.  1652,  by  the 
servant  of  a  Turkish  merchant,  and,  at  the  close  of  that  cen- 
tury, the  annual  consumption  in  that  city  had  reached  the 
amount  of  100  tons.  The  culture  of  coffee  was  first  intro- 
duced into  Java  by  the  Dutch,  between  A.  D.  1680  and  1690, 
and  was  subsequently  extended  throughout  the  East  India 
Islands.  In  A.  D.  1720,  its  cultivation  was  introduced  into 
the  Island  of  Martinique,  where  it  succeeded  so  well  that  in  a 
few  years  all  the  West  India  Islands  were  supplied  therefrom. 

The  coffee  of  commerce  is  the  seed  of  the  Coffea  arabiea, 
an  evergreen  shrub  or  small  tree,  with  opposite,  shining 
leaves,  and  white,  fragrant  flowers,  which  grow  in  clusters 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  about 
20  feet,  but  in  cultivation  is  kept  down,  by  pruning,  to  about 
5  feet,  to  increase  its  productiveness,  and  for  convenience  in 
picking  the  berries.  The  plants  are  raised  from  the  seed,  in 
nurseries,  and,  when  one  year  old.  they  are  transplanted  and 
set  out  in  rows.  The  growing  trees  begin  to  hear  fruit  when 
they  are  three  years  old,  but  do  not  reach  maturity  until  they 
are  five  years  old.  The  tree  continues  in  bearing  for  twenty 
years. 

The  coffee  tree  blooms  for  eight  months  in  the  year,  so  that 
the  ripe  coffee  berries  may  be  gathered  at  almost  any  season. 
There  are,  however,  two,  and  sometimes  three,  regular  liar- 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  43 

vests  during  the  course  of  the  year.  Where  the  climate  is 
very  dry,  abundant  irrigation  is  necessary,  but  the  water  is 
shut  off  when  the  berries  begin  to  ripen,  as  the  quality  of 
the  coffee  derived  therefrom  is  thereby  improved. 

The  coffee  berry  very  much  resembles  the  red  cherry,  and, 
in  ripening,  first  turns  red  and  finally  purple.  The  fleshy 
portion  surrounding  the  seeds  is  sweet  and  palatable.  Each 
berry  contains  two  seeds  or  beans  of  semi-ellipsoidal  shape. 
The  two  beans  lie  in  the  center  of  the  pulp  of  the  berry,  with 
their  flat  sides  toward  each  other,  and  are  closely  enveloped 
in  a  tough  membrane.  Sometimes  one  of  the  beans  is  abor- 
tive, and  then  the  remaining  one  grows  round.  As  the 
berries  dry,  the  pulp  forms  a  sort  of  shell  or  pod,  which  is 
removed  by  a  process  of  curing,  in  order  to  prepare  the  beans 
for  market. 

In  the  West  Indies,  the  berries  are  picked  by  hand  at  inter- 
vals during  the  seasons  of  harvest;  but  in  Arabia,  where 
there  are  no  rains  which  would  beat  them  from  the  trees, 
they  are  allowed  to  remain  until  they  are  wholly  ready  to 
fall  off,  and  are  then  shaken  down  on  sheets  of  canvas  spread 
on  the  ground.  The  perfect  ripeness  of  Arabian  coffee  is 
probably  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  its  superiority  of 
quality. 

In  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  the  curing  is  usually 
effected  by  exposing  a  layer  of  berries,  several  inches  in  thick- 
ness, to  the  heat  of  the  sun  until  fermentation  takes  place. 
When  the  moisture  developed  in  the  process  of  fermentation 
has  disappeared,  the  dried  berries  are  crushed  by  running 
them  through  a  large  pair  of  wooden  rollers  or  by  pounding 
them  in  wooden  mortars,  and  the  dried  pulp  is  then  washed 
away  and  the  beans  left  in  their  tough,  membranous  envelope. 
The  beans,  after  being  dried,  are  run  through  a  pair  of  heavy 
rollers,  which  break  up  the  envelope.  The  resulting  chaff 
is  removed  by  winnowing,  and  the  beans,  in  the  form  of  the 
coffee  of  commerce,  are  left  behind. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  gathering  and  prepa- 
ration for  market  of  the  coffee  crop  in  Ceylon : 

In  the  height  of  the  crop  the  fruit  is  taken  to  the  pulping 
mill  at  midday,  and  again  in  the  evening.     The  task  given  to 


44  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

a  coolie  is  to  bring  a  bushel  of  berries  at  each  collection. 
From  good-bearing  coffee  trees  some  quick  hands  will  gather 
as  much  as  4  bushels  a  day,  for  which,  of  course,  they  get 
extra  r>ay.  The  berries  are  very  much  like  cherries,  and  it 
would  puzzle  most  persons  to  distinguish  a  heap  of  coffee 
berries  from  a  heap  of  cherries.  Instead  of  a  single  seed  or 
"stone,"  as  has  the  cherry,  the  coffee  berry  has  two  symmet- 
rical seeds  or  "beans,"  enveloped  in  a  thick,  leathery  skin. 
which  is  called  "parchment."  After  the  thick  pulp  has  been 
removed,  the  seeds  are  left  in  the  cistern  until  such  time  as 
fermentation  sets  in;  the  mucilage  is  then  worked  off,  and 
the  beans  are  then  in  condition  to  be  carried  to  the  drying 
ground.  The  drying  of  the  beans  is  a  most  important  pr<  m 
as  a  shower  of  rain  will  discolor  them,  and  much  depreciate 
their  value.  A  constant  watch  is,  therefore,  kept  for  rain 
clouds,  and  dreadful  is  the  noise  and  hurry  when  they  appear 
and  threaten  in  a  few  minutes  to  break  over  the  precious 
parchment  on  the  barbecues.  When  thoroughly  dried,  the 
parchment  is  put  in  bushel  bags  and  sent  to  Colombo.  It 
then  undergoes  another  drying  preparatory  to  being  relieved 
of  its  husks.  The  husks  are  removed  by  putting  the  parch- 
ment in  annular  troughs  wherein  work  heavy  rollers,  which 
break  the  membranous  envelope  without  injuring  the  beans. 
The  beans  are  then  " sized, "  i.  e.,  they  are  separated  into 
three  lots— large,  medium,  and  small.  The  sizing  is  done  to 
promote  equable  roasting,  which  is  very  important,  as  a  small 
bean  would  be  burnt  into  charcoal  by  the  time  a  large  one 
would  be  sufficiently  roasted.  Much  care  is  given  to  sizing 
by  Colombo  merchants  who  undertake  this  part  of  the 
preparation  of  coffee  for  market,  and  well  understand  its 
importance. 

"The  quality  of  coffee  depends  verymnch  on  the  district 
in  which  it  is  grown  and  its  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  -the  greater  the  elevation  the  finer  the  quality.  Matn 
ralto  has  long  been  famous  for  the  quality  of  its  coffees,  and 

its  plantations  are  all  Upward  of    1. (MX)  feet    above  sea  level." 

In  some  places,  an  infusion  of  the  raw  coffee  beans  is  used 
as  a  beverage,  but  the  general  custom  is  to  use  an  infusion  of 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  45 

the  roasted  beans,  because  roasting  develops  their  aromatic 
properties,  which  are  communicated  to  the  infusion. 

The  object  of  roasting  coffee,  as  above  indicated,  is  not  only 
to  render  it  friable,  to  facilitate  the  grinding  of  it,  but  to 
create  or  develop  its  aromatic,  volatile  oil ;  and  great  care  is 
required  to  limit  the  operation  so  that  the  good  effects  of 
creating  or  developing  the  aromatic,  volatile  oil  may  not  be 
destroyed  by  burning  the  substance  of  the  beans. 

The  roasting  is  done  with  a  machine  called  a  coffee  roaster, 
which  consists  of  a  revolving  sheet-iron  cylinder  set  over  a 
furnace.  The  roasting  is  effected  by  putting  the  proper  quan- 
tity of  coffee  into  the  sheet-iron  cylinder,  which,  by  means  of 
proper  machinery,  is  slowly  turned  around  on  its  axis  over 
the  fire  in  the  furnace,  so  that  all  of  the  coffee  beans  shall  be 
equally  exposed  to  the  heat. 

The  natural  color  of  coffee  beans  is  a  dull,  pale  green ;  but 
they  acquire  two  other  colors,  in  succession,  in  the  process  of 
roasting,  viz,  yellowish  brown  and  chestnut  brown.  The 
degree  of  roasting  indicated  by  the  yellowish -brown  color, 
which  causes  a  loss  in  weight  of  12£  per  cent,  is  insufficient, 
and  must  be  advanced  to  the  degree  indicated  by  the  chestnut- 
brown  color,  which  increases  the  loss  in  weight  to  20  per  cent. 
This  latter  amount  of  loss  in  weight,  which  chiefly  represents 
expelled  water,  is  the  basis  of  the  difference  between  the 
green-coffee  component  of  the  Army  ration  and  its  roasted- 
coffee  equivalent — the  former  being  10  pounds  to  the  hundred 
rations,  and  the  latter  8  pounds. 

Roasted  coffee  deteriorates  by  absorbing  moisture  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  should,  therefore,  be  put  up  in  air-tight 
packages,  preferably  hermetically  sealed  tin  cans  or  canisters. 
It  is,  also,  very  susceptible  to  damage  by  absorbing  odors 
from  other  articles,  and  raw  coffee  is  liable  to  damage  in  the 
same  way. 

Raw  coffee  is  frequently  rendered  musty  by  moisture 
absorbed  during  the  voyage  of  importation.  When  coffee 
becomes  musty  its  delicacy  of  flavor  is  much  impaired,  and 
no  process  of  so-called  renovation  can  in  any  degree  restore  it. 


46  HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STOKES. 

The  chemical  composition  of  raw  coffee  beans  is  as  follows, 
viz: 

Per  out. 

Caffeine 0.  8 

Caseine,  or  legumine 13.0 

Dextrine  and  sugar 15. 5 

Fat  and  volatile  oil 13.  0 

Mineral  matter <;.  7 

Caffeo-tannic  acid ^ 

Caffeic  acids J 

Cellulose M.  0 

Water ; 12.0 

Total 100.  0 

The  chemical  composition  of  roasted  coffee  beans  is  as  fol- 
lows, viz: 

l'<  i  cent. 
Water 5. 0 

Albuminoids 15.  0 

Caffeine ().  6 

Tannin 4.0 

Minor  extractives 32. 4 

Cellulose  38. 4 

Mineral  matter 4.  6 

Total 100. 0 

There  are  several  kinds  of  coffee  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  the  South  American  and  Central  American  States 
and  Mexico.     From  Brazil,  the  principal  kinds  are  ' '  Rio"  and 
"Santos;"  from  the  Central  American  States,  "Costa  Rica. 
"Guatemala,"  "  Salvador, "  etc.  ;  and  from  Mexico.  •Cordova."' 

The  coffees  of  Brazil  vary  greatly  in  color  and  size  of  bean. 
Most  of  the  "Rio"  coffee  (so  called  from  the  city  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  the  port  from  which  it  is  exported)  lias  a  small  bean. 
varying  in  color  from  a  light  to  a  dark  green.  Sonic  of  it  is 
of  a  yellow  hue,  and  this  is  called  "Golden  Rio."  Large 
quantities  of  the  Brazilian  coffees  arc  artificially  colored  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  certain  sections  where  a  prejudice 
exists  in  favor  of  coffee  of  particular  colors.  Various  clienii 
Cals  are  used  in  the  coloring  process,  sonic  of  which  are  poi 
sonons,  while  others  are  comparatively  harmless.  The  flavor 
of  most  of  the  Rio  coffee  imported  into  the  United  States  is 
quite  marked  and  entirely  different    from  that  of  anv  other 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  47 

kind,  and  its  smell  and  appearance  are  also  quite  distinct  and 
characteristic.  The  Santos  variety,  the  next  in  importance, 
is  grown  in  the  southern  portion  of  Brazil,  contiguous  to  the 
Rio  district,  but  differs  from  the  Rio  in  flavor  and  appearance 
of  the  bean.  It  has  a  milder  flavor  than  the  Rio,  and  is  by 
many  preferred  to  it. 

Of  the  Central  American  coffees  the  Costa  Rica  and  Guate- 
mala are  the  most  important.  The  Costa  Rica  bean  differs  in 
shape  from  the  Rio,  while  in  color  it  varies  from  a  dark  to  a 
light  grayish -green.  It  has  a  fine,  rich  flavor.  The  Guate- 
mala bean  varies  in  color  from  a  dark  to  a  bluish  green,  is 
unusually  uniform  in  size,  and  has  a  fine  flavor. 

The  Cordova  coffee  has  larger  and  longer  beans  than  the 
Central  and  South  American  coffees.  It  is  of  uniform  size, 
well  cleaned,  and  usually  of  a  green  color.  It  is  often  polished 
and  sold  as  Java  coffee. 

All  coffees  improve  with  age,  and  should  be  at  least  one 
year  old  before  being  used. 

Testing  the  Quality  of  Coffee.— The  appearance  or 
<k style"  of  raw  coffee  is  not  always  an  index  of  its  quality, 
and,  therefore,  the  only  reliable  method  of  determining  its 
quality  is  to  roast  and  grind  it,  and  make  an  infusion  from  the 
resulting  powder. 

To  make  infusion  tests :  Roast  to  a  chestnut-brown  color 
and  grind  to  a  fine  powder  a  small  but  sufficient  quantity  of 
each  of  the  samples  of  raw  coffee  to  be  tested,  and,  also,  a  like 
quantity  of  the  sample  of  the  standard  raw  coffee ;  place  care- 
fully weighed  equal  quantities  of  the  ground  samples,  respect- 
ively, in  as  many  clean  coffeepots  and  pour  on  them  equal 
quantities  of  boiling-hot  water,  and  draw.  Test  the  infusions 
for  odor  as  soon  as  practicable,  and  for  taste  as  soon  as  they 
are  cool  enough  to  be  tasted  without  discomfort ;  and  then, 
after  allowing  the  infusions  to  stand  a  little  while,  test  them 
again.  If  any  bad  qualities  escape  detection  in  the  first  test, 
they  will  show  themselves  in  the  last. 

Test  for  Adulterations  in  Roasted  and  Ground  Cof- 
fee.— Pure  roasted  and  ground  coffee  will  give  but  little  color 
to  cold  water  until  after  the  mixture  has  stood  for  about  ten 


48  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

minuted,  while  such  adulterations  as  roasted  and  ground  chic- 
ory, and  other  roasted  and  ground  roots,  and  powdered  burnt 
caramel,  will  color  the  water  immediately. 

Coffee  for  issue  to  the  Army  is  purchased  in  the  commercial 
packages,  which  are  double  sacks  containing  about  130 
pounds,  net. 

Coffee  requires  dry,  well-ventilated  storage ;  and,  as  it  read 
ily  absorbs  foreign  odors,  it  should  not  be  stored  near  such 
articles  as  pepper,  tobacco,  etc. 

COFFEE,  JAVA. 

Java  coffee  is  so  named  from  the  Island  of  Java,  where  it 
first  became  an  article  of  commerce. 

It  has  a  good-sized  bean  with  quite  a  large  suture;  and,  as 
found  on  our  market,  is  distinguished  into  pale  yellow,  which 
is  the  newer  and  cheaper  kind,  and  yellowish  brown,  which 
is  the  old  and  dearer  kind.  At  the  time  of  the  shipment  from 
the  port  of  exportation  it  is  of  alight-green  color,  but  it  changes 
during  the  voyage  of  importation  to  a  pale  yellow.  Age  im- 
proves its  quality  immensely,  and  as  its  color  deepens  with 
advancing  age,  the  darkest  yellowish  brown  is  the  best. 

The  crop  is  gathered  in  the  months  of  January,  February, 
and  March.  It  is  put  up  in  small  grass  mats  containing  from 
65  to  68  pounds,  net.  Each  mat  is  marked  with  a  letter  or 
letters  indicating  the  district  where  grown.  For  Army  use, 
two  of  these  mats  are  put  up  in  a  gunny  sack. 

The  Java  coffee  of  commerce  comes  from  the  islands  of  Java, 
Sumatra,  and  Celebes,  which  possess  similar  conditions  as  t«» 
climate  and  soil;  and  it  should  be  noted  that  conditions  as  t<> 
climate  and  soil  powerfully  influence  the  quality  of  coffee. 
Almost  the  entire  amount  of  Java  coffee  consumed  in  the 
United  States  conies  from  Padang,  on  the  Island  of  Sumatra. 

The  Sumatra  brands  of  Java  coffee  areas  follows,  in  the 
order  of  merit  in  which  they  have  ranked  for  years,  viz: 
Mandheling,  Ayer  Bengies,  Ankola,  Painan.  and  Padang. 

There  are  a  number  of  coffees  in  the  markets  purporting  to 
be  Java  which  are  not  Java:  they  come  from  Brazil,  the 
Island  of  Ceylon,  and  Singapore.     (  Vylon  Java  is  the  only  one 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  49 

of  them  that  nearly  approaches  Java  in  quality.  At  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition,  in  Philadelphia,  there  was  an  exhibition 
of  Brazilian-grown  coffee,  under  the  name  of  "Imitation  Java 
Coffee,"  which  was  very  inferior  to,  and  materially  different 
from,  the  exhibit  of  Java  coffee  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies; 
and  this  Brazilian  Java  is  the  fictitious  Java  chiefly  sold  in 
the  United  States. 

The  best  method  of  determining  the  quality  of  Java  coffee 
is  by  the  infusion  test  described  in  the  article  on  "Coffee, 
issue." 

Java  coffee  requires  the  same  kind  of  storage  and  the  same 
care  while  in  storages  as  "Coffee,  issue." 

COFFEE,  MOCHA. 

Mocha  coffee  derives  its  name  from  the  town  of  Mocha,  in 
Arabia,  but  it  is  chiefly  grown  on  the  hills  of  Yeomen,  lying 
near  the  districts  of  Mocha  and  Aden. 

The  excessively  hot  and  dry  climate  and  the  very  sandy 
nature  of  the  soil  of  the  Yeomen-hills  region  render  irrigation 
and  shade  indispensably  necessary  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
coffee ;  and  these  peculiarities  of  climate  and  soil  are  supposed 
to  account  for  the  smallness  of  size  and  the  acridness  of  flavor 
of  its  bean. 

The  bean  is  small  and,  when  new,  is  of  a  yellowish -green 
color,  which,  with  age,  changes  to  greenish  olive ;  and,  instead 
<  >f  having  the  usual  flat  side,  is  often  round,  because  one  of 
the  two  sides  of  the  bean  is  abortive. 

Mocha  coffee  is  put  up  in  bales  containing  either  eight 
smaller  packages  of  50  pounds  each,  called  "eighth  bales,"  or 
four  smaller  packages  of  80  pounds  each,  called  "quarter 
bales."  These  packages  are  of  peculiar  shape  and  construc- 
tion, and  are  made  of  a  very  coarse  bagging  cloth  and  sewed 
with  a  vegetable  substance  that  becomes  hard  and  very  tough 
with  age.  The  package  most  suitable  for  Army  use  is  a  strong 
gunny  sack     four  eighth  bales. 

Much  of  the  coffee  sold  under  the  name  of  Mocha  is  pro- 
duced in  the  East  India  Islands  and  Brazil,  and  sent  to  a 
Mocha  coffee  port,  and  then  reshipped  as  the  genuine  article. 
A  great  deal  of  the  so-called  Mocha  coffee  is  often  nothing 

339 7 


50  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

more  than  the  carefully  selected  small,  round  beans  from  the 
tops  of  the  branches  of  the  Brazilian  plant,  It  is  supposed 
that  only  about  one-half  of  the  imports  received  into  the 
United  States  under  the  name  of  Mocha  coffee  are  of  Arabian 
growth. 

At  Aden  and  Alexandria  the  Mocha  coffee  is  carefully 
picked  over  and  assorted  into  lots  containing  larger  and 
smaller  beans,  respectively,  in  conformity  with  a  singular 
fashion  of  the  trade  which  creates  a  demand  in  Europe  for 
the  larger  beans  and  in  the  United  States  for  the  smaller.  In 
point  of  fact,  the  larger  beans  are  best,  because  they  are  more 
fully  developed  and  consequently  have  a  better  flavor. 

The  quantity  of  Mocha  coffee  annually  exported  from  Aden 
amounts  to  about  8,000,000  pounds.  The  bulk  of  this  goes  to 
London  and  Marseilles,  but  two  or  three  of  the  principal 
importers  in  this  country  have  agents  at  Aden  and  Alexan- 
dria who  purchase  the  genuine  Mocha  coffee  and  ship  it  to 
New  York  and  Boston. 

The  new  crop  arrives  at  New  York  and  Boston  about  May. 

Raw  Mocha  coffee  has  a  very  pleasant  odor,  not  unlike  that 
of  pineapple.  When  freshly  roasted  it  emits  a  rich  aroma. 
The  infusion  of  the  roasted  and  ground  Mocha  coffee  lias  a 
heavier  body  and  a  less  delicate  flavor  than  the  infusion  of 
roasted  and  ground  Java  coffee. 

The  best  method  of  determining  the  quality  of  Mocha  coffee 
is  by  the  infusion  test,  which  is  described  in  the  article  on 
"( Joffee,  issue." 

Mocha  coffee  requires  the  same  kind  of  storage,  and  the 
same  care  while  in  store,  as  "Coffee,  issue." 

COMBS. 

The  combs  furnished  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted  men  of 

the  Army  are  as  follows,  viz: 

Horn,  coarse,  medium  size;  horn,  coarse,  small  size;  rub 
ber,  dressing,  and  rubber,  pocket. 

The  coarse  horn  combs  of  medium  size  are  made  of  common 
horn.  They  are  ('»',  inches  long  and  \;  inches  wide.  The 
teeth  are  1£  inches  long,  one  half  fine  and   the  other  half 


HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOKES,  51 

coarse.     They  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  twelve  combs 
each. 

The  coarse  horn  combs  of  small  size  are  also  made  of  com- 
mon horn.  They  are  5  inches  long  and  If  inches  wide.  The 
teeth  are  1  inch  long,  one  half  fine  and  the  other  half  coarse. 
They  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  twelve  combs  each. 

Fine  horn  combs  are  made  of  common  horn.  They  are  3 
inches  long  and  1  j  inches  wide.  The  combs  have  fine  teeth 
only,  i  inch  long  on  both  sides.  They  are  put  up  in  cartons 
containing  twelve  combs  each. 

Rubber  dressing  combs  are  7f  inches  long  and  1  inch  wide. 
The  teeth  are  }  inch  long,  one  half  fine  and  the  other  half 
coarse.  They  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  twelve  combs 
each. 

Pocket  rubber  combs  are  5  inches  long  and  ]  |  inch  wide. 
The  teeth  are  £  inch  long,  one  half  fine  and  the  other  half 
coarse.  Each  comb  has  a  patent-leather  cover  bound  with 
tin.  They  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  twelve  combs 
each. 

All  combs  for  Army  use  should  be  well  finished  and  have 
strong  teeth. 

CORN,  GREEN,  CANNED. 

The  only  kind  of  corn  that  is  suitable  for  canning  is  the 
variety  known  as  sweet  corn,  the  best  quality  of  which  is 
grown  in  the  Northern  States — that  grown  in  the  State  of 
Maine  being  of  the  best  quality  of  all. 

The  quality  of  canned  green  corn  depends  upon  the  quality 
and  condition  of  the  stock  used  and  the  skill  and  care  used 
in  canning  it.  It  is  very  essential  that  green  corn  to  be  used 
for  canning  should  be  picked  from  the  stalk  just  when  it 
reaches  the  proper  stage  of  ripeness. 

Canners  buy  their  green  corn  by  the  pound,  cut  from  the 
cob,  under  engagements  made  in  advance  of  the  planting- 
season,  from  farmers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  canneries. 

For  canning,  green  corn  is  usually  picked  from  the  stalk  in 
the  afternoon  and  left  on  the  ground  (not  piled,  as  it  would 
heat)  until  the  next  morning,  when  it  is  hauled  to  the  can- 
nery.    It  is,  also,  sometimes  picked  from  the  stalk  early  in 


52  HANDBOOK    <>K  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

the  morning  before  the  dew  is  off  it;  and,  when  bo  picked, 
it  is  immediately  hanled  to  the  cannery. 

Upon  delivery  at  the  cannery,  each  lot  of  green  corn  is 
tagged  with  the  seller's  name,  and  is  kept  separate  until  it  is 
cut  from  the  cob  and  the  cut  corn  weighed. 

The  process  of  canning  is  as  follows,  viz: 

The  butts  of  the  ears  are  cut  off  and  they  are  then  husked 
and  thrown  into  baskets,  in  which  they  are  sent  to  the  cut- 
ters, who  cut  the  corn  from  the  cobs  with  a  circular  knife, 
gauged  so  as  not  to  cut  away  the  entire  grains,  but  to  leave 
the  inner  ends  (about  one-fourth  of  each  grain)  on  the  cob. 
The  cobs  arc;  then  scraped  with  the  back  of  the  knife,  which 
takes  out  the  "chits"  of  the  adhering  corn.  The  cut  corn, 
including  the  chits,  is  then  weighed,  and  the  weight  thus 
ascertained  is  the  purchase  weight  of  the  green  corn  to  be 
paid  for.  The  cut  corn  is  then  silked  with  a  silker,  or  a  sifter, 
or  by  hand,  and  put  into  large,  rectangular,  galvanized 
iron  pans  and  kept  in  them  until  it  is  required  for  canning. 
In  hot  weather,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ice  is  put  into  each 
pan  with  the  corn  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  corn  low 
enough  to  prevent  it  from  spoiling. 

When  the  cut  corn  is  required  for  canning,  it  is  first  well 
stirred  and  then  taken  out  of  the  galvanized  iron  pans  and 
put  into  a  cooker  and  heated  until  the  entire  mass  has 
acquired  a,  temperature  of  240°  F.  The  proper  quantity  of 
hot  green  corn  and  the  proper  quantity  of  saturated  solution 
of  sugar  in  water,  or  salt  in  water,  are  put  into  each  can. 
When  the  cans  are  thus  filled,  they  are  soldered  up  and  put 
into  a  retort,  where  they  are  processed  for  forty  minutes  or 
more,  at  240°  F.  The  hot  cans  are  immediately  put  into  a 
bath  pan  of  the  same  capacity  (about  eighty  five  cans)  as  the 
retort,  and  cooled  with  cold  water,  to  preserve  the  white 
color  of  the  corn— the  corn  acquiring  a  very  dark  color  and 
becoming  unsightly  if  allowed  to  cool  naturally. 

After  being  cooled,  the  processed  cans  are  inspected,  ami 

the  defective   ones   set    aside.      The  latter   are   repaired    with 

solder  and  then  put  back  into  the  retort  and  reprocessed. 
They  are  then  called  "Do-overs,"  and  put  up  and  sold  under 
bastard  brands. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  53 

Canners  use  cannery  brands  on  all  goods  of  standard  qual- 
ity, and  bastard  brands  on  all  goods  of  inferior  quality. 

Cannery  brands 'are  brands  with  which  the  name  of  the 
owner  of  the  cannery  is  incorporated,  and  bastard  brands  are 
brands  with  which  the  names  of  the  owners  of  the  canneries 
are  not  incorporated. 

Canned  green  corn,  put  up  under  other  than  cannery  brands, 
should  not  be  purchased  for  the  use  of  the  Army. 

Canned  green  corn  keeps  best  in  dry  storage  of  equable, 
moderate  temperature. 

CORN   MEAL. 

Corn  meal  is  made  from  either  white  or  yellow  Indian  corn ; 
the  white  being  raised  in  the  Western  and  Southern  States, 
and  the  yellow  in  the  Northern  States. 

White  flint  corn  makes  the  best  corn  meal,  but  good  corn 
of  any  of  the  harder-seed  varieties  makes  good  corn  meal. 

The  roller  process  of  making  corn  meal  is  as  follows,  viz : 

The  corn,  after  being  passed  through  a  cleaner,  is  carried 
to,  and  crushed  between,  a  pair  of  corrugated  rollers,  one  of 
which  revolves  more  rapidly  than  the  other.  The  crushed 
product  is  then  carried  to  a  bolt  and  bolted — the  finer  part  of 
the  crushed  product,  which  passes  through  the  meshes  of  the 
bolting  cloth,  being  corn  meal.  The  part  of  the  crushed  prod- 
uct which  tails  over  the  end  of  the  bolt  is  passed  through 
a  second  pair  of  rollers  with  finer  corrugations.  The  product 
of  the  second  crushing  is  carried  to  a  bolt  and  bolted,  and  the 
tailings  carried  to  a  third  pair  of  rollers  with  still  finer  cor- 
rugations. The  product  of  the  third  crushing  is  carried  to 
a  bolt  and  bolted,  and  the  tailings  carried  to,  and  passed 
through,  a  fourth  pair  of  rollers  with  still  finer  corrugations. 
The  product  of  the  fourth  crushing  is  carried  to  a  bolt  and 
bolted,  and  the  process  is  finished,  the  tailings  of  the  fourth 
bolting  being  bran. 

( iranulated  corn  meal  is  made  from  the  meal  of  the  fourth 
bolting,  by  passing  it  through  a  purifier,  which  takes  out  the 
Hour  and  fine  particles,  leaving  only  granulated  meal.  If 
granulated  meal  is  not  to  be  made,  the  meal  of  the  fourth  bolt- 
ing is  mixed  with  that  of  the  former  boltings. 


54  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

By  the  old  millstone  process  of  grinding,  corn  meal  is  made 
at  one  grinding.  That  process  generates  more  heat  than  the 
roller  process,  and  injures  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  meal ; 
and  for  this  and  other  reasons  the  roller  process  is  preferable 
to  the  millstone  process. 

Granulated  corn  meal  is  gritty  and  sharp  to  the  feel,  and  is 
more  uniform  in  texture,  and  contains  a  greater  proportion 
of  gluten  than  common  corn  meal. 

Common  or  straight  corn  meal  is  the  whole  product  of  the 
corn  grain,  less  the  husk  or  bran.  It  contains  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  starch  and  is  softer  to  the  touch  than  granulated 
corn  meal.  The  granulated  corn  meal  costs  more  than  the 
common  corn  meal,  but  it  keeps  better. 

Corn  meal,  on  account  of  deficiency  in  gluten,  is  not  adapted 
to  making  raised  bread  without  an  admixture  of  wheat  or 
rye  flour.  Corn  meal  can  readily  be  made  into  cakes  and 
baked,  or  boiled  and  fried;  and  containing,  as  it  does,  about 
the  same  percentage  of  nitrogenous  matter  as  wheat,  and 
upward  of  fourteen  times  the  amount  of  fatty  matter,  it 
stands  ill  a  high  position  as  regards  alimentary  value  for 
soldiers  in  the  field. 

Coin  meal,  if  kept  long  on  hand,  or  if  not  properly  stored 
and  cared  for,  is  liable  to  sour.  It  is  also  liable  to  injury  by 
worms. 

Corn  meal  purchased  for  the  Army  should  be  new.  and. 
unless  it  is  required  for  immediate  use  at  or  near  the  place  of 
purchase,  it  should  be  kiln-dried. 

(  torn  meal  for  ordinary  Army  use  should  be  put  up  in  barrels 
containing  200  pounds,  net;  or,  if  used  at  posts  or  places 
reached  wholly  or  partly  by  wagon  or  pack  animal  transpor 
tat  ion,  in  double  sacks  containing  100  pounds,  net. 

( Join  meal  should  be  stored  on  skids,  in  a  dry.  well  ventilated 

storehouse. 

CRABS,  CANNED. 

The  season  for  canning  crabs,  or.  accurately  speaking,  the 
meal  of  crabs,  is  from  April  to  November.  It  is  the  general 
belief  among  packers  of  canned  goods  thai  crabs  are  canned 
by  a  process  similar  to  thai  used  in  canning  other  articles  of 
food.    It  is  impossible,  however,  to  learn  the  exacl  process, 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  55 

as,  apparently,  there  are  some  secrets  connected  with  it  that 
are  most  carefully  guarded.  The  only  successful  packer,  reply- 
ing to  a  request  for  information,  stated  "It  would  give  us 
great  pleasure  to  comply  with  your  request.  *  *  *  Our 
process  is  an  original  one  that  was  only  perfected  after  years 
of  experiment  and  a  very  large  outlay ;  many  other  brands 
have  come  upon  the  market  only  to  disappear  in  a  short  time, 
which  makes  us  believe  that  our  secret  is  worth  guarding." 

Canned  crabs  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and  be 
protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

CRACKERS. 

Crackers  are  the  finer  grades  of  what  in  England,  France, 
and  other  countries  except  the  United  States,  and  often  even 
there,  are  called  hard  biscuits ;  and  are  a  kind  of  unfermented 
bread,  formed  into  flat  cakes  and  baked  hard. 

They  are  classified  under  commercial  names  as  water  crack- 
ers, soda  crackers,  oyster  crackers,  ginger  crackers  or  ginger 
snaps,  etc.  They  are  also  classified  in  a  more  general  way  as 
plain  goods,  sponge  goods,  and  sweet  goods. 

Water  crackers  are  an  example  of  plain  goods ;  soda  crackers 
and  oyster  crackers  are  examples  of  sponge  goods ;  and  ginger 
crackers  or  ginger  snaps,  an  example  of  sweet  goods. 

The  ingredients  of  which  crackers  are  made,  which  should 
be  of  superior  quality,  are  generally  mixed  by  machinery. 
When  butter  and  lard  are  used,  they  are  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  flour  in  the  dry  state;  then  the  milk  or  water,  in 
which  the  sugar  or  salt,  when  used,  is  first  dissolved,  is  added, 
and  the  whole  made  into  dough  by  a  kneading  or  mixing 
machine.  The  dough  is  run  through  a  heavy  "break,"  the 
>] »(  t; itic  >n  somewhat  resembling  that  of  a  roller  clothes  wringer. 
It  is  then  transferred  to  the  cracker  machine,  where  it  is  rolled 
into  long  sheets,  dusted  with  flour,  passed  under  the  cutters, 
and  cut  into  crackers.  Some  cracker  machines  deliver  the 
crackers  into  the  ovens,  on  pans,  to  be  baked.  The  doughs 
for  fancy  crackers,  except  that  for  cream  crackers,  should 
stand  overnight,  and  the  doughs  for  all  other  crackers,  except 
those  containing  an  excess  of  soda,  a  few  hours,  before  being 
passed  through  the  break. 


56  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

The  temperature  of  the  oven  for  baking  crackers,  cakes. 
etc.,  should  be  only  high  enough  to  give  a  nice  brown  color, 
without  burning  them.  Crackers  or  cakes  containing  sugar 
should  not,  in  baking,  be  raised  to  as  high  a  temperature  as 
those  without  it,  because  the  sugar  might  thereby  be  cara 
inelized,  and  the  quality  of  the  crackers  impaired  and  their 
beauty  destroyed. 

The  following  varieties  of  crackers  are  furnished  by  the 
Subsistence  Department  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted  men 
of  the  Army,  viz:  Water,  soda,  oyster,  and  ginger. 

Water  Crackers.— Water  crackers  should  be  made  of  a 
mixture  or  blend  of  equal  proportions  of  straight  white 
winter -wheat  flour  and  patent  white  winter- wheat  flour.  The 
ingredients  of  water  crackers  are  in  the  following  proportions. 
viz:  Flour,  19G  pounds;  salt,  1  pound;  and  water,  7  to  8 
gallons.  After  the  dough  has  been  made  and  cut  into  >  crackers. 
the  latter  are  "chafed "by hand,  i.  e.,  the  edges  are  turned  up 
underneath  into  the  crackers  and  they  are  thereby  rendered 
air  proof ,  and  given  power  to  expand  by  the  contained  air 
when  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  oven  in  baking. 

When  chafed,  the  crackers  are  put  into  the  oven  to  be  baked. 
The  temperature  of  the  oven  should  not  be  higher  than  from 
300   to  350   F.     After  being  baked,  they  are  put  into  the  dry 
ing  room  and  completely  dried. 

Water  crackers  chafed  by  hand,  as  above  described,  are 
called  handmade  water  crackers. 

The  yield  of  water  crackers  is  about  L85  pounds  to  the  barrel 
of  flour. 

Soda  Crackers. —  Soda  crackers  should  be  made  of  strong 
patent  white  winter-wheat  flour.     The  ingredients  should  be 
in  the  following  proportions,  viz:   Flour,   196  pounds;  I; 
24  pounds;  yeast,  1 .1  gallons:  soda,  lj  pounds;  salt,  2  pounds ; 
and  water,  3  gallons. 

ponge  is  first  made  of  about  one-third  of  the  flour,  and 
left  for  about  eight  hours,  to  rise.  When  sufficiently  risen. 
the  sponge  is  broken,  and  the  dough  made  by  working  into 
the  sponge  the  remainder  of  the  Hour  and  (he  lard  and  the 
soda  previously  mixed  therewith.  The  dough,  also,  is  then 
left  for  about  eight  hours,  or  a  sufficient  time,  depending  on 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  57 

the  weather,  to  rise.  When  sufficiently  risen,  the  dough  is 
ran  through  the  break,  and  then  through  the  cracker  machine, 
and  cut  into  crackers.  The  crackers  are  then  put  into  an 
oven  and  baked. 

For  baking  soda  crackers,  the  oven  should  be  considerably 
hotter  than  for  baking  water  crackers. 

(  )vstEr  Crackers. — Oyster  crackers  are  made  of  the  same 
ingredients  and  in  the  same  manner  as  soda  crackers — the 
only  difference  being  in  the  shape  and  size  of  the  crackers. 
Soda  crackers  are  square  in  shape  and  oyster  crackers  are 
round,  and  the  former  are  larger  than  the  latter. 

Ginger  Crackers. — Ginger  crackers,  or  as  they  are  com 
monly  called,  ginger  snaps,  should  be  made  of  patent  white 
winter- wheat  flour. 

The  ingredients  of  ginger  crackers  are  in  the  following 
proportions,  viz:  Flour,  196  pounds;  brown  sugar,  80  pounds; 
lard,  88  pounds;  ginger,  4  pounds;  cinnamon,  i  pound;  soda, 
3  pounds;  suet,  \\  pounds;  molasses,  13  gallons;  and  water,  \ 
gallon. 

It  is  best  to  let  the  dough  stand  for  several  hours,  but  it  is 
not  absolutely  necessary. 

For  Army  use,  all  authorized  kinds  of  crackers  are  put  up 
in  1  -pound  cartons,  and  packed  in  cases  of  such  convenient 
sizes  as  may  be  required,  reference  being  had  to  the  quanti- 
ties that  may  be  needed  to  fill  the  different  requisitions. 

Crackers  require  dry,  well -ventilated  storage. 

ELECTRO-SILICON. 

Electro-silicon  is  a  polishing  powder  used  for  cleaning  gold, 
silver,  gold-plated,  silver-plated,  tin,  steel,  glass,  and  other 
similar  articles  with  polished,  engraved,  or  chased  surfaces. 

It  is  generally  used  dry,  with  a  piece  of  chamois  skin  or 
cotton  flannel.  A  slight  rubbing  will  generally  develop  the 
luster  of  the  article.  When,  however,  the  dry  Electro-silicon 
doea  not  at  once  remove  all  tarnish  or  dullness,  moisten  it 
with  water  or  alcohol,  and  then  finish  with  the  dry  powder. 

The  powder  is  applied  dry  to  chased  or  engraved  surfaces 
with  a  soft  jeweler's  brush. 


58  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

It  is  warranted  not  to  scratch  the  most  delicate  surface. 
It  is  a  proprietary  article,  and  its  name  is  a  trade-mark. 

It  is  put  up  in  Bounce  flat,  cylindrical  wooden  boxes. 
It  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

FLAVORING    EXTRACT,  LEMON. 

Lemon  flavoring  extract  is  an  alcoholic  solution  of  oil  of 
lemon. 

The  pure  oil  of  lemon  is  made  by  hand,  by  simply  squeezing 
fresh  lemon  peels  against  a  sponge,  which  absorbs  the  oil 
contained  in  the  peels.  This  oil  is  the  fine  hand-pressed  oil 
of  lemon  of  commerce,  and  is  furnished  chiefly  by  Southern 
France  and  Italy. 

An  inferior  article  of  oil  of  lemon  is  made  by  distilling  the 
outer  rind  of  the  lemon  with  water,  and  this  cheaper  and 
inferior  distilled  oil  is  used  for  mixing  in  greater  or  less  pro- 
portions with  the  expressed  oil,  to  make  cheaper  grades  of  oil 
of  lemon. 

Still  cheaper  grades  of  oil  of  lemon  are  made  by  adult  el- 
ating the  aforesaid  mixtures  with  oil  of  turpentine.  The  oil 
of  turpentine,  however,  soon  becomes  rancid  and  develops 
the  turpentine  odor,  which  declares  the  presence  of  the  nox- 
ious  adulterant. 

Oil  of  lemon,  even  of  the  best  quality,  loses  its  flavor  by 
exposure  to  light  and  air. 

Lemon  flavoring  extract  to  be  kept  by  the  Subsistence 
Department,  for  sale  to  the  officers  and  enlisted  men  of  the 
Army,  should  be  a  saturated  solution  of  tine  hand-pressed  oil 
o\'  lemon  in  fine  alcohol. 

The  facility  with  which  the  strength  of  alcohol  and  the 
quality  of  oil  of  lemon  can  be  varied,  and  the  facility  with 
which  they  can,  when  thus  varied,  be  combined  in  any  desired 
proportions,  contribute  largely  to  the  production  of  the  many 
inferior  brands  of  lemon  flavoring  extract  to  be  found  in  the 
market. 

The  best  simple  test  for  determining  the  quality  of  lemon 
flavoring  extract,  and  that  is  not  conclusive,  is  to  put  a  small 
quantity  (a  few  drops)  in  a  teacup,  pour  on  it  one  fourth  of  a 
cupful  of  boiling-hot  water,  and  test  the  vapor  for  odor,  and. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  59 

when  sufficiently  cool,  taste  the  dilution  for  flavor — compar- 
ing with  the  standard  similarly  prepared. 

The  proportions  of  alcohol  and  oil  of  lemon  can  be  deter 
mined  by  chemical  analysis. 

For  Army  use,  lemon  flavoring  extract  is  required  to  be  put 
up  in  bounce  bottles,  twenty-four  to  the  case. 

FLAVORING    EXTRACT,  VANILLA. 

Vanilla  flavoring  extract  is  an  alcoholic  solution  of  vanil- 
lin, slightly  sweetened  with  sugar. 

Vanillin  is  a  white  crystalline  substance  found  in  the  bean 
of  the  vanilla  plant,  an  orchid  indigenous  to  Eastern  Mexico, 
but  which  is  now  cultivated  in  some  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  in  the  Island  of  Bourbon  and  the  Island  of  Mada- 
gascar, and  also  in  some  of  the  East  India  Islands. 

The  Mexican  vanilla  beans  are  the  best  and  the  Bourbon 
the  next  best. 

An  artificial  vanillin  is  made  from  coniferin,  which  is 
obtained  from  the  sap  wood  of  the  pine  tree.  Although  the 
artificial  vanillin  is  identical  in  chemical  composition  with  the 
natural  product,  it  is  not  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  it  in 
the  manufacture  of  vanilla  flavoring  extract.  It  is,  however, 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  numerous  brands  of 
inferior  vanilla  flavoring  extract  to  be  found  in  the  market. 

Vanilla  flavoring  extract  of  proper  quality  to  be  kept  by 
the  Subsistence  Department,  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted 
n lfii  of  the  Army,  should  be  the  product  of  fine  alcohol  and 
fine  Mexican  vanilla  beans. 

The  best  test  for  determining  the  quality  of  vanilla  flavor- 
ing extract,  and  that  is  not  conclusive,  is  to  put  a  small 
quantity  (a  few  drops)  in  a  teacup,  pour  on  it  one-fourth  of 
a  cupful  of  boiling-hot  water,  and  test  the  vapor  for  odor, 
and  when  sufficiently  cool,  taste  the  dilution  for  flavor — com 
paring  with  the  standard,  similarly  prepared. 

For  Army  use  vanilla  flavoring  extract  is  required  to  be  put 
up  in  2-ounce  bottles,  twenty-four  to  a  case. 

FLOUR. 

Flour  is  the  term  used  generally  to  designate  the  finely- 
ground  meal  of  wheat  or  other  cereal  grains ;  but  it  is  here 


60  HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

used  specifically  to  designate  the  finer  part  of  the  meal  of  the 
wheat  grain  which  is  separated  from  the  coarser  part  or  bran 
in  bolting. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  wheat,  viz,  spring  wheat,  so  named 
because  it  is  sown  in  the  spring,  and  winter  wheat,  so  named 
because,  although  sown  in  the  fall,  it  is  hardy  enough  to  sur- 
vive the  winter.  They  are  further  distinguished  by  millers 
and  merchants  as  "hard"  and  "soft,"  respectively. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  marked  differences  in  the 
structure  of  the  grains  of  spring  and  winter  wheats:  The 
grains  of  spring  wheat  have  a  wide  crease  and  a  corrugated 
surface,  affording  convenient  lodgment  for  dirt.  The  bran 
is  of  a  dark  color  and  friable.  The  grains  of  winter  wheal 
have  a  narrow  crease  and  usually  a  smooth  surface.  The 
bran  is  of  a  light  color  and  has  sufficient  toughness  to  be 
easily  separated  from  the  flour. 

Wheat  is  graded  according  to  kind,  plumpness,  cleanliB 
weight,  and  condition,  as  "No.  1  Spring,"   "No.  2  Spring," 
"No.  3  Spring,"   "No.  1  Winter,"   "No.  2  Winter."'   "No.  •'> 
Winter,"  etc. 

Wheat  grading  No.  1,  being  absolutely  clean  and  virtually 
physically  perfect,  is  very  Scarce.      It  is  the  best  for  seed. 

Wheat  grading  No.  2,  being  reasonably  clean  and  suiti 
ciently  near  physically  perfect  for  the  purpose,  is  used  in 
making  the  good  flours  of  commerce.  All  wheat  grading 
below  No.  3  is  immature  or  otherwise  physically  defective,  or 
damp  or  otherwise  out  of  good  condition,  or  musty  or  other 
wise  damaged. 

The  cultivation  of  wheat  has  superseded  that  of  all  other 
grains  in  climates  where  it  will  thrive.  hi  the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  food  only  tor  the  wealthy  classes,  but  its  use  lias  been 
constantly  increasing  until  it  is  now  food  I'm'  ail  classes, 

The  reason  seems  to  be  that  bread  made  from  it  has  no 
unpleasant  <>r  pronounced  taste,  so  that  the  most  fastidious 
palate  does  not  become  tired  of  it.  It  has  the  light,  spongy, 
or  porous  character  which  is  bo  conspicuous  in  light  or  raised 

wheat  bread.      'litis  adapts  it   tor  easy  digestion,  and  is  due  to 

the  peculiar  nature  of  its  glut  en,  which  is  very  ehistie.  When 
moist  dough  oi*  wheat  flour  is  compressed,  the  elasticity  of  its 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  61 

gluten  component  causes  it  to  spring  back  and  resume  its 
form. 

The  quality  of  flour  is  dependent  upon  the  variety  of  the 
wheat  from  which  it  is  made,  the  curing  of  the  ripened  grain, 
and  the  milling. 

The  curing  process  is  of  the  most  importance,  for  if  the 
grain  is  allowed  to  become  damp  and  moldy  a  disagreeable 
flavor  will  be  communicated  to  the  flour,  and  its  quality 
otherwise  impaired. 

To  make  good  flour  requires — 
1st.  Good  wheat. 
2d.  A  good  mill. 
8d.   A  good  miller. 

A  combination  of  the  above  essentials  will  always  produce 
good  results,  and  the  judgment  of  the  miller  will  always 
point  out  any  variation  of  practice  that  may  be  necessary 
under  any  conditions  which  may  arise. 

There  is  no  infallible  rule  of  practice  in  milling. 

There  are  two  processes  of  milling,  which  are  known  as 
' '  high  milling  "  and  ' '  low  milling. "  In  early  times  the  grains 
of  wheat  were  brayed  in  a  mortar,  and  later  they  were  ground 
between  two  hard  stones.  Low  milling  is  the  grinding  of 
grains  of  wheat  between  two  large,  round  stones  with  radial 
grooves  in  their  grinding  faces,  one  revolving  at  such  a  small 
distance  from  the  other  as  to  crush  the  grains,  which  are 
caught  as  it  were  by  the  radial  grooves  and  reduced  to 
powder. 

In  this  method  of  milling  the  wheat  is  sometimes  moistened 
before  grinding,  as  the  grains  are  then  more  easily  crushed 
and  the  bran  is  toughened. 

The  heat  developed  in  grinding  with  millstones  is  consider- 
able, the  temperature  of  the  meal  as  it  comes  from  the  stones 
being  about  120°  F. 

This  heating  of  the  meal,  it  is  thought,  impairs  the  quality 
of  the  gluten  by  rendering  it  less  tenacious  and  the  flour  less 
fit  for  making  bread. 

The  heating  of  the  meal  and  the  grinding  of  portions  of  the 
husks  so  fine  that  they  pass  through  the  bolt  with  the  flour 
are  the  chief  objections  to  this  method  of  milling. 


62  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

High  milling  is  a  succession  of  crackings  or  slight  and  par- 
tial crushings  of  the  wheat  grains,  alternating  with  the  sift 
ing  and  sorting  of  the  meal. 

The  cracking  or  crushing  machinery  consists  of  a  series  of 
pairs  or  sets  of  two  steel  rolls,  with  corrugated  surfaces. 
revolving,  in  close  proximity  to  each  other.  The  distances 
between  the  two  rolls  in  successive  sets  differ  very  slightly. 
and  are  graded  in  a  decreasing  progression,  so  that  the  grains 
of  wheat  passing  through  the  first  set  are  merely  cracked  ;  the 
slightly  cracked  grains  then  feeding  automatically  into,  and 
passing  through,  the  next  set,  are  slightly  cracked  or  crushed 
again,  and  so  on,  for  each  succeeding  set  of  rolls,  to  the  end  of 
the  series. 

The  next  step  is  the  sifting  and  sorting.  This  is  generally 
done  by  a  series  of  sieves — each  sieve  being  of  finer  mesh  than 
the  next  preceding  one,  and  the  last,  made  of  fine  white  silk 
cloth,  called  bolting  cloth,  the  finest  of  all.  The  last  sieve 
gives  the  finest  flour  and  the  coarser  grades  are  left  on  the 
way. 

The  following  account  of  a  visit  to  a  flour  mill  of  modern 
design  and  equipment  gives  a  very  good  idea  of  the  process 
of  high  milling : 

"The  wheat  is  'spouted'  into  the  basement  of  the  mill  from 
the  bins  of  the  grain  elevator,  and  then  sent  to  the  upper  or 
seventh  story  by  steam  power. 

"The  first  process  is  the  sorting  and  cleaning  of  the  wheat. 
Any  bits  of  iron,  nails,  straws,  or  bits  of  wood,  are  thrown 
out  as  it  passes  through  the  cleaning  machines.  The  seeds  of 
cockle  and  other  weeds,  and  the  seeds  of  grasses,  shriveled 
grains  of  the  wheat  itself,  are  all  separated  or  sifted  out.  The 
wheat  is  passed  between  brush  rollers,  and  all  the  dust 
removed  from  the  creases  and  surfaces  of  the  grains,  so  thai 
when  examined  at  this  stage  it  appears  plump,  even-sized,  and 
almost  polished. 

"In  the  next  process  the  grains  are  cracked  once  longit  udi 
nally,  i.  e.,  in  aline  with   the  creases;  they  are  then  crushed 
again,  and  then  a  third  time.      In  the  third  crushing  the  husks 
are  entirely  freed  from  the  Hour  components  of  the  grains  and 
are  reduced  to  mere  films. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  63 

1 '  This  method  of  successively  cracking  the  grains  is  com- 
paratively new;  and,  as  a  rale,  takes  out  all  the  flour  and 
leaves  nothing  in  the  husks.  Here  and  there  a  husk  could  be 
picked  out  with  an  atom  of  flour  adhering  to  it. 

' '  Tin1  meal  is  now  bolted  through  coarse  sieves,  which  take 
out  the  husks  or  bran;  the  portion  of  the  meal  remaining  is 
called  'middlings.' 

"The  middlings  are  ground  and  bolted  five  times,  looking 
very  much  like  flour  the  last  time.  This  flour  is  then  passed 
through  fine  sieves  called  bolts,  which  are  cylinders  revolving 
( >ii  horizontal  axes.  The  bolts  are  mounted  within  large  chests 
of  appropriate  size.  On  opening  the  chests  to  look  at  the 
sieves,  a  warm,  sweet  odor  like  that  of  new  bread  comes  out 
<  >f  them. 

"  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  above-mentioned  pro- 
cess: 

.  "1.  The  grain  is  cleaned  and  assorted. 
"2.  The  grain  is  cracked  lengthwise. 
1 '  3.  The  grain  is  crushed. 

"4.  The  grain  is  crushed  again;   the  husk  is  now  loose 
and  the  kernel  crushed;   the  grain  is  reduced  to 
meal. 
4 '  5.   The  meal  is  bolted,  the  result  being  bran  and  No.  1 

middlings. 
"6.  Middlings  No.  2. 
' '  7.  Middlings  No.  3,  finer  still. 
' '  8.  Middlings  No.  4,  finer  still. 
"9.  Middlings  No.  5,  finer  still. 
"10.  Middlings  are  now  like  flour. 
"11.  This  flour  is  ground  once  more  and  bolted. 
"To  be  packed,  the  flour  comes  down  through  large  cylin- 
drical spouts  into  the  barrels  or  sacks.     The  packing  machines 
are  nearly  automatic.     There  are  a  number  of  them  (propor- 
tioned to  the  capacity  of  the  mill)  arranged  in  two  rows  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  packing  room. 

1 '  When  filled,  the  barrel  or  sack  is  placed  on  a  scale  and 
weighed,  the  weigher  adding  or  taking  out  flour  so  as  to  make 
the  weight  exactly  standard. 


64  HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORKS. 

"Every  improvement  is  added  to  insure  safety  in  the  mill, 
to  lighten  labor,  and  to  increase  the  amount  and  improve  the 
quality  of  the  flour.  Attached  to  the  machinery  are  tubes, 
connected  with  exhaust  fans,  which  draw  away  all  the  impal- 
pable dnst  from  around  the  roller,  and  also  from  the  room. 
This  fine  dust  becomes  explosively  inflammable  when  it  is  elec 
trifled,  audit  is  liable  to  become  electrified  by  contact  with 
the  high-speed  revolving  machinery  of  a  flour  mill.  The  gr<  •; 1 1 
explosion  a  few  years  ago,  in  a  flour  mill  at  Minneapolis,  Minn. , 
is  presumed  to  have  been  due  to  this  cause,  through  ignition, 
by  a  bit  of  red-hot  iron  wire  in  the  wheat,  which  became 
heated  in  x>assing  through  the  rollers.  This  is  one  reason, 
also,  for  the  extreme  care  used  in  cleaning  the  wheat  before 
grinding,  lest  any  bit  of  iron  should  pass  through  the  machine  >ry. 

"The  dust  drawn  from  the  air  of  the  mill,  with  the  sweep 
ings  from  the  boxes  and  shafts,  is  saved  and  used  with  the 
low-grade  middlings  in  making  the  inferior  grades  of  flour." 

Quality  of  the  Gluten. — One  x>articular  kind  of  wheat 
may  be  richer  in  gluten  than  another,  but  quantity  of  gluten 
does  not  compensate  for  inferiority  of  quality. 

The  quality  of  gluten  is  measured  by  its  elasticity. 

Quality  of  the  Starch. — The  starch  in  flour  should  be  of 
a  white,  or  yellowish-white,  color.  If  the  starch  is  of  a 
decidedly  yellow  color,  it  indicates  that  it  has  commenced  t<> 
undergo  chemical  change,  and  that  it  is  damaged. 

The  Best  Flour  for  Making  Bread.  — It  has  been  found 

by  exi)erience  that  the  best  bread  is  made  from  flour  contain 
ing  from  10  to  18  per  cent  of  gluten  of  good  quality.  Flour 
with  too  little  gluten,  or  with  gluten  sufficient  in  quantity 
but  deficient  in  quality,  will  make  bread  of  inferior  quality. 
Flour  with  an  excessive  proportion  of  gluten  absorbs  t<><> 
much  water  in  being  made  into  dough,  and  is  not  essential  t<> 
the  making  of  good  bread. 

The  relatively  greater  proporl  ion  of  gluten  in  spring-wheat 
flour   and  its   superior    tenacity   cause  the   dough    to   expand 

amply  in  rising,  and  give  corresponding  lightness  to  the 
bread.     Or  the  other  hand,  the  relatively  greater  proportion 

of  starch  iii  winter-wheat  flour,  on  account  of  the  chemical 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  65 

changes  it  undergoes  during  the  fermentation  of  the  dough, 
whereby  a  relatively  greater  proportion  of  sugar  is  produced 
and  a  relatively  greater  volume  of  carbonic-acid  gas  evolved, 
gives  greater  sweetness,  and,  possibly,  greater  lightness,  to 
the  bread. 

While  every  barrel  of  flour  purchased  for  Army  use  should 
be  capable,  when  used  by  itself,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  ser- 
vice may  sometimes  require,  of  making  a  proper  yield  of 
good  bread,  the  best  flour  for  making  bread,  as  will  hereafter 
be  explained,  is  not  a  single  brand  of  spring-wheat  flour  or  a 
single  brand  of  winter-wheat  flour,  but  a  judicious  mixture 
of  one  or  more  brands  of  the  former  with  one  or  more  brands 
of  the  latter,  or  of  a  flour  made  by  combining,  during  the 
process  of  manufacture,  several  grades  of  good  wheat. 

Winter-wheat  and  Spring-wheat  Flours.— Many  winter- 
wheat  flours  do  not  absorb  as  much  water  as  flours  made  from 
the  harder  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  and  consequently  will 
make  a  less  yield  of  bread  than  the  latter.  So  far,  however, 
as  the  other  qualities  are  concerned,  the  fine  winter-wheat 
flours  are  fully  equal,  and  in  some  respects  superior,  to  the 
fine  spring- wheat  flours.  The  strongest  flour  does  not  always 
make  the  most  delicate,  or  the  sweetest,  or  the  most  palatable 
bread. 

Sweating  of  Wheat  and  Flour.— About  the  months  of 
September  and  October,  new-crop  wheat  and  flour  made 
therefrom  undergo  a  natural  change  of  condition  by  evolv- 
ing a  portion  of  the  water  contained  in  them,  with  a  consid- 
erable rise  of  temperature.  This  action  is  called  ' '  sweating, " 
and  the  change,  "the  sweat."  In  passing  through  the  sweat 
wheat  loses  its  softness,  and  becomes  dry,  hard,  and  flinty. 
While  going  through  the  sweat  flour  has  a  dark  color,  which, 
if  souring  does  not  supervene,  gradually  changes  back  to  the 
original  white,  as  the  sweat  passes  off. 

Flour  made  from  new-crop  wheat  which  has  not  passed 
through  the  sweat  should  be  issued  promptly,  lest  it  become 
musty  and  a  total  loss. 

It  is  good  policy  not  to  purchase  any  flour  between  the  1st 
of  June  and  the  30th  of  November. 

339 — 9 


66  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    BTOEKS. 

Strength  of  Flour.— The  strength  of  flour  depends  on 
the  amount  and  quality  of  the  gluten  it  contains.  The  gluten 
is,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  combined  with  the  starch,  and 
the  greater  the  preponderance  of  the  gluten  over  the  starch, 
the  greater  the  strength  of  the  flour. 

Weak  flour  can  not  be  utilized  for  making  bread  otherwise 
than  by  mixing  it,  in  proper  proportion,  with  strong  flour. 

Sprouted- wheat  Flour. — Good  flour  can  not  be  made  from 
sprouted  wheat,  because  such  wheat  has  undergone  more  or 
less  fermentation  and  thereby  lost  more  or  less  of  its  fer- 
menting elements  and  fermenting  power;  and,  although  it 
may  have  been  given  a  good  appearance  by  superior  milling, 
it  will  not  ferment  readily  or  sufficiently  in  the  process  i  >f 
bread  making  to  make  good  bread. 

Sprouted-wheat  flour  has  the  same  general  appearance  as 
flour  made  too  early  from  new-crop  wheat.  It  feels  heavy 
and  appears  dull,  flat,  and  lifeless.  The  dough  made  from 
such  flour  has  a  rank  odor,  and  the  bread  is  clammy,  heavy, 
dark-colored,  and  unwholesome. 

Earthy-smelling  Flour.— Flour  made  from  wheat  which 
has  been  exposed  to  dampness  while  in  the  straw,  after  being 
harvested,  has  sometimes  an  earthy  smell.  This  is  caused  by 
the  wheat  having  been  damaged  by  "heating,"  i.  e.,  by  incip 
ient  fermentation,  while  in  shocks  or  stacks,  in  the  field. 
Sometimes  nearly  all  flours  from  particular  localities  where 
especially  damp  seasons  have  prevailed  at  and  after  harvest 
time,  have  this  earthy  smell.  Bread  made  from  such  tiours 
is  clammy,  heavy,  dark-colored,  and  unwholesome,  but  is  not 
as  bad  as  that  made  from  sprouted -wheat  Hours. 

Souring  of  Flour. — Flour  ordinarily  contains  from  9  to  L5 
per  cent  of  water,  and,  under  the  influence  of  heat,  natural 
or  artificial,  not  strong  enough  to  expel  the  moisture,  but 
strong  enough  to  start  fermentation,  it  will  heat  and  sour. 
the  action  being  a  slow  fermentation  of  the  same  character 
that  leavened  dough  undergoes  in  the  process  of  bread  mat 
ing.  Flour,  therefore,  stored  in  a  moist  atmosphere,  in  warm 
or  moderately  warm  weather,  is  liable  to  heal  and  sour. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  67 

Good-keeping  Flour. — Winter- wheat  flour  is  drier  than 
spring-wheat  flour  and  not  so  liable  to  sour,  and,  therefore, 
has  the  better  keeping  qualities.  "No  flour,  however,  will 
have  good  keeping  qualities  unless  it  is  made  from  sound  and 
well -cleaned  wheat. 

Variation  in  the  Chemical  Composition. — Flour,  on 
account  of  the  variation  from  the  normal  in  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  wheat  from  which  it  is  made,  arising 
from  the  peculiarities  of  the  kind  of  wheat,  or  of  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  soil  on  which  it  was  grown,  or  the  meteoro- 
logical conditions  which  prevailed  during  its  growth,  or  a 
combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  causes,  will  generally 
be  deficient  in  some  and  redundant  in  other  chemical  ele- 
ments essential  to  the  production  of  good  bread  of  proper 
nutritive  value.  These  deficiencies  and  redundancies  can, 
however,  be  substantially  compensated  and  equalized  by  mix- 
ing, in  proper  proportions,  one  or  more  brands  of  spring-wheat 
flour  with  one  or  more  brands  of  winter- wheat  flour;  or  by 
mixing,  in  proper  proportions,  spring  wheat  taken  from  one 
or  more  lots  with  winter  wheat  taken  from  one  or  more  lots, 
and  milling  the  mixture. 

The  milling  of  a  mixture  of  different  kinds  or  different 
lots  of  wheat  is,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
size,  shape,  and  density  of  the  grain,  somewhat  difficult  at 
many  of  the  mills  that  are  not  equipped  with  improved 
machinery  and  conveniences;  but  many  of  the  large  mills 
are  i^rovided  with  a  number  of  wheat  bins,  each  containing 
different  grades  of  wheat,  all  of  which  are  under  direct  con- 
trol of  the  miller,  and  from  which  he  can  draw  wheat,  during 
the  process  of  making  flour,  in  such  proportions  as  he  may 
desire. 

Some  wheat,  owing  to  the  soil  and  other  conditions  under 
which  it  is  raised,  may  lack  the  necessary  chemical  properties 
for  first-class  flour ;  but  these  elements  can  be  supplied  to  the 
flour,  during  the  process  of  grinding,  from  wheat  contained 
in  the  other  bins.  A  good  miller,  provided  with  the  proper 
facilities  for  so  doing,  can  combine  these  elements  in  suitable 
proportion,  and  thus  flour  can  be  produced  which  is  capable 


68  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

of  making  good  bread  by  itself.  When  such  is  the  case,  bet- 
ter bread  can  be  produced  for  use  at  military  posts  where 
the  bakers  are  not  always  possessed  of  the  necessary  skill  to 
enable  them  to  tell  the  qualities  of  the  flour,  or  to  determine 
upon  the  mixture  in  which  to  properly  blend  two  or  more 
brands  that  will  produce  the  best  results. 

In  large  bakeries,  where  skilled  bakers  are  employed,  the 
baker  should  exercise  full  control  over  the  flour,  and  if  the 
mixture  of  two  or  more  brands  should  prove  to  make  better 
bread  than  the  use  of  a  single  brand,  such  a  practice  is  advis- 
able, but  just  as  good  results  may  be  obtained  by  using  flour 
that  is  properly  made  from  various  characters  of  wheat  as  by 
trusting  to  the  judgment  of  the  bakers  usually  detailed  at 
the  posts. 

It  is  also  difficult  to  make  issues,  in  proper  proportions,  of 
flour  where  but  ten  or  fifteen  rations  are  drawn,  if,  as  fre- 
quently happens,  two,  three,  and  even  four  grades  arc 
required;  and  to  those  who  need  only  small  quantities  the 
proportions  are  not  followed  in  the  issues,  and  they  arc  £re 
quently  unable  to  make  good  bread  from  the  one  grade  usu- 
ally issued  in  such  jcases. 

To  make  bread  of  proper  nutritive  value  and  wholesome 
ness  ''straight"  flour,  i.  e.,  flour  containing  all  the  elements 
of  the  fully-developed  wheat  grain,  except  the  husk  or  bran, 
is  essential;  and  such  flour  only  should  he  purchased  for 
issue  as  a  component  of  the  Army  ration. 

Mode  of  Packing  Flour.— Whether  flour  should  he  packed 
warm  or  cold  is  yet  a  disputed  point  ;  also  whether  it  should 
he  packed  tight  or  loose  is  yet  unsettled,  with  facts  in  favor  <>\' 
the  latter  mode.  Much  United  States  flour  is  seiit  to  England 
in  sacks.  Extra-tight  packing  has,  in  some  instances,  proved 
a  failure — the  flour  having  caked  much.  Caking  also  occurs 
in  the  packages  in  the  lower  tiers,  if  flour  is  piled  too  high. 

Experience  has  shown  that  flour  put  up  in  sacks  need  noi 
he  so  tightly  pressed,  and  does  not  sour  so  readily,  as  that  put 
up  in  barrels.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  objected  that  Hour 
pnt  up  in  sacks  is  more  exposed  to  the  damaging  effects  oJ 
foul  air,  dampness,  and  heat,  than  flour  put  up  in  nu-reis. 


UNIVERSITY 

HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTEN^^gTBSljBjg  R^?U^         69 

Storage.— Flour  keeps  best  in  cool,  dry,  and  well-ventilated 
storage.  In  summer,  it  should  not  be  stored  in  either  a  cellar 
or  a  garret,  but  in  a  room,  preferably  in  the  second  or  third 
story,  where  there  is  a  full  and  free  circulation  of  air.  It 
keeps  best  in  a  moderate,  equable  temperature,  and  should 
not  be  exposed  to  a  freezing  temperature,  nor  to  an  intense 
summer  heat  or  equivalent  artificial  heat,  for  any  great 
length  of  time.  It  should  not  be  stored  with  grain  or  other 
articles  which  are  liable  to  heat.  It  is  peculiarly  sensitive  to 
exhalations  from  other  substances,  and,  therefore,  should  not 
be  stored  in  the  same  room  with  sour  liquids,  vegetables,  fish, 
or  any  other  articles  that  emit  unsavory  or  noxious  exhala- 
tions, nor  in  close  proximity  to  kerosene,  coffee,  or  tobacco. 

Brands  of  Flour. — Under  the  laws  and  regulations  gov- 
erning the  purchase  of  public  property,  competition  among 
bidders  for  furnishing  flour  is  limited  to  specified  grades, 
and  the  purchase  of  particular  brands  is,  therefore,  imprac- 
ticable. 

Flour  brands  are  of  three  classes,  viz,  mill  brands,  private 
brands,  and  bastard  brands.  Mill  brands  have  the  name  of 
the  miller,  milling  firm,  or  milling  corporation,  owning  the 
same,  incorporated  therewith  or  annexed  thereto.  Private 
brands,  likewise,  have  the  name  of  the  merchant,  mercantile 
firm,  or  mercantile  corporation,  incorporated  therewith  or 
annexed  thereto.  Bastard  brands  do  not  have  the  names  of 
owners  incorporated  therewith  or  annexed  thereto.  Mill 
brands  are  used  by  millers  on  their  good  grades  of  flour; 
private  brands,  by  merchants,  also,  on  good  grades  of  flour ; 
and  bastard  brands,  by  millers  on  their  poor  grades  of  flour. 

Not  all  mill  brands,  nor  perhaps  all  private  brands,  are 
kept  up  to  their  original  standard  of  quality.  After  having 
become  well  established  in  public  favor,  they  are,  sometimes, 
without  reducing  prices,  gradually  lowered  in  quality,  mak- 
ing them  of  cheaper  and  cheaper,  and,  consequently,  poorer 
and  poorer,  wheat,  in  a  manner  quite  imperceptible  to  the 
generality  of  customers.  Therefore,  brands  are  not  an  unerring 
index  of  the  quality  of  flour,  and  the  only  safe  reliance  is 
inspection. 


70  HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE   STOi: 

Flour  without  brand,  or  irregularly  branded  with  left* 
numbers,  etc.,  should  be  subjected  to  rigid  scrutiny. 

Uniformity  in  Quality  of  Mill  Brands  of  Flour.— The 
marked  uniformity  in  the  goodness,  or  quality,  of  some  mill 
brands  of  flour  is  maintained  by  constant  care  in  selecting  and 
milling  the  wheat,  and  by  careful  inspection  of  each  package 

of  flour  before  it  leaves  the  mill.  The  inspection  of  the  flour 
is  not  superficial  only,  but  thorough  and  conclusive,  involving 
the  use  of  the  microscope  and  the  water  tests. 

Effects  of  Age  on  Wheat  and  Flour. — Wheat  improves 
in  quality  as  its  age  increases,  until  it  passes  through  the 
"sweat."  It  then  retains  its  quality,  and  does  not  undergo 
any  noticeable  changes  for  a  very  long  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  while  flour  improves  in  bread-making  qualities  as  its 
age  increases,  for  some  time  after  it  is  made,  and  should  be  at 
least  thirty  days  old  before  being  used  for  making  bread,  it 
reaches  a  stage  in  three  or  four  months  beyond  which  it  does 
not  so  improve ;  and,  while  it  retains  its  acquired  good  qualities 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  it  eventually  begins  to  deterio- 
rate seriously.  Animal  and  vegetable  parasites  appear  in  it — 
among  the  former,  mites,  vibriones,  and  the  larva'  of  insects; 
and  among  the  latter,  several  species  of  fungi.  The  presence 
of  mites  and  vibriones,  which  can  readily  be  detected  with  the 
microscope,  almost  always  indicates  decomposition  of  the 
gluten,  and  consequent  deterioration  of  the  flour.  The  fungi 
have  the  reputation  of  causing  intestinal  irritation  in  the 
persons  who  eat  the  bread  made  from  flour  containing  them. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  deterioration 
which  flour  undergoes  by  being  kept  on  hand  too  long  is 
acidity.  This  acidity,  which  is  very  slight  in  recently  made 
flour,  increases  rapidly  and  progressively  with  the  increase 
in  the  age  of  the  flour.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  period 
of  good  preservation  of  Hour  does  not  extend  beyond  a  few 
months. 

The  slight  acidity  noticeable  in  old  wheat,  particularly 
in  old  wheat  of  1he  hard  varieties.,  which  contain  less  water 
than  the  soft  varieties,  is  ill  very  strong  contrast  with  the 
high  degree  of  acidity  found  in  old  flour.    Experiments  recently 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  <1 

made  by  M.  Ballaud,  a  prominent  French  chemist,  with  wheat 
that  had  been  kept  for  ten  years,  showed  that  its  acidity 
differed  little  from  that  of  new  wheat. 

The  relative  effects  of  age  on  wheat  and  flour  indicate  that 
flonr  should  not  be  accumulated  in  very  large  quantities  or 
kept  on  hand  for  any  long  period  of  time,  and  that  the  reserve 
supply  of  breadstuff  should  be  in  wheat  instead  of  flour. 

Methods  of  Testing  Flour.— Flour  testing,  like  tea  test- 
ing, is  an  acquirement.  It  requires  long  practice  to  judge  of 
the  quality  of  flour  by  its  shade  of  yellow,  its  mode  of  caking, 
when  pressed,  or  other  characteristics. 

There  are  two  classes  of  tests  for  the  quality  of  flour,  viz, 
dry  tests  and  the  water  tests. 

Dry  Tests. — The  dry  tests  are  as  follows: 

/;.//  Color. — Flour  should  be  of  a  warm  white  color — not  a 
chalky  white.  The  latter  would  indicate  deficiency  in  strength 
from  overgrinding,  which  removes  too  much  of  the  gluten, 
destroys  the  proper  proportion  between  the  gluten  and  starch, 
and  brings  the  latter  into  too  great  prominence.  An  approach 
to  this  condition  is  more  noticeable  in  "Patent"  or  "Family" 
flour,  which  goes  through  four  or  more  processes  of  grinding, 
than  in  "Straight"  or  "Issue"  flour.  Flour  should  not  have 
a  bluish  tinge,  as  this  would  indicate  the  presence  of  cockle 
seed,  a  small,  black  seed  borne  by  a  plant  or  weed  that  grows 
among  wheat,  or  smut,  the  result  of  a  fungus  disease  to 
which  wheat  is  liable.  Flour  should  not  have  any  tinge 
away  from  a  warm  white.  An  exception  to  this  is  the  Walla  - 
Walla  flour,  which,  although  quite  yellow,  is  of  excellent 
quality.  This  test  requires  the  ability  to  distinguish  delicate 
shades  of  color.  The  color  that  flour  will  give  to  bread  made 
therefrom  will  be  shown  by  placing  a  flattened  ball  of  dough 
made  therefrom  on  a  piece  of  clean,  colorless  window  glass, 
and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours,  when,  by 
looking  at  the  bottom  of  the  ball  of  dough  through  the  glass 
on  which  it  rests,  the  color  will  be  seen. 

By  Comparative  Color. — When  flour  is  to  be  inspected  for 
acceptance  under  a  contract,  the  inspector  should  have  with 
him  a  portion  of  the  sample  upon  which  it  was  purchased,  in 


12  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

order  to  make  comparison  between  the  former  and  the  latter. 
To  do  this,  abont  one  handful  each  of  the  sample  and  the 
flour  to  be  inspected  are  placed  on  a  piece  of  smooth  board, 
about  15  inches  long  and  6  inches  wide,  the  two  piles  about 
2 .1  inches  apart,  and  so  placed  that  no  part  of  one  shall  run 
into  the  other;  both  of  these  piles  are  then  flattened  with  an 
ivory  spatula  made  for  the  purpose,  or  with  an  ivory  paper 
cutter,  if  necessary;  two  parallel  cuts  perpendicular  to  the 
sides  of  the  board  are  then  made  through  each  pile,  at  its  sides, 
the  flour  thus  cut  off  being  slightly  moved  with  the  edge  of 
the  spatula  from  the  flattened  x>ile  to  which  it  belonged;  this 
is  for  the  purpose  of  loosening  this  separate  portion  from  its 
hold  on  the  board,  when,  by  tipping  the  board  a  little  more 
than  forty-five  degrees  toward  the  inspector,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  flattened  piles  will  retain  their  position,  while  the 
four  loosened  parts  will  slide  off,  leaving  two  masses  whose 
inner  and  outer  edges  are  parallel.  Then  place  the  spatula, 
with  its  edge  closely  against  the  now  horizontal  board,  and  in 
contact  with  the  outer  edge  of  the  right-hand  pile,  and  by  a 
steady  pressure  slide  it  to  the  left  until  its  inner  edge  comes  in 
contact  with  the  inner  edge  of  the  left-hand  pile;  draw  the 
flat  of  the  spatula  toward  you,  with  but  slight  pressure  over 
the  line  of  juncture  of  the  two  flours,  take  to  the  light,  ami. 
by  tipping  the  board  backward  and  forward  slightly,  the 
difference  of  color  between  the  sample  and  the  flour  offered, 
if  such  a  difference  exists,  will  be  readily  seen  at  the  line  of 
contact  of  the  two  flours. 

For  Cleanliness. — To  detect  dirt  or  foreign  substances,  as 
much  of  the  flour  as  can  be  held  in  the  band  should  be  placed 
on  a  smooth  piece  of  paper  and  flattened  with  an  ivory  spat  ola, 
and  the  pile  separated  into  parts  by  a  downward  cut  of  the 
edge  of  the  spatula,  the  different  sections  of  the  pile  being 
then  slightly  separated  by  a  side  movement.  Any  dirt  or 
foreign  substance  can  be  readily  detected  by  the  aid  of  a 
magnifying  glass,  or  even  with  the  naked  eye,  the  dirt  show 
ing  in  specks,  and  foreign  or  unground  substances  leaving 
little  tracks  behind  them  when  forced  down  by  the  edge  of 
the  spatula,  such  as  a  snowball  makes  when  being  rolled. 


HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  73 

By  Smell  and  Taste. — If  flour  does  not  have  the  taste  of 
sound,  freshly  ground  wheat  meal,  or  if  it  has  a  sour  taste,  or 
a  musty,  moldy,  or  earthy  taste  or  odor,  however  slight,  it  is 
unsound,  and  should  be  rejected. 

For  Dampness. — When  flour  is  damp  it  should  be  rejected 
without  question.  This  condition  is  indicated  by  the  possi- 
bility of  rolling  a  pellet  of  it  between  the  thumb  and  finger, 
or  by  the  general  feeling  of  moisture  perceptible  in  running 
the  open  hand  through  it. 

For  Strength. — The  strength  of  flour  may  be  determined,  in 
a  general  way,  by  pinching  it  between  the  thumb  and  fingers 
as  it  lies  in  a  pile  or  in  an  open  sack.  When  it  is  pinched,  it 
should  retain  the  pyramidal  form,  instead  of  crumbling  as 
soon  as  the  pressure  is  removed.  Before  using  this  test,  the 
absence  of  moisture  should  first  be  determined  by  the  fore- 
going test  for  dampness.  The  property  of  sticking  to  a  perpen- 
dicular, flat  surface,  when  thrown  against  it,  is  also  indicative 
of  strength  in  flour,  but  the  best  test  for  strength  will  be 
given  hereafter,  among  the  water  tests. 

For  Texture. — Take  in  one  hand  a  small  portion  of  flour 
from  the  sample,  and  in  the  other  hand  a  like  portion  from 
the  lot  of  flour  to  be  inspected ;  rub  these  two  small  portions 
of  flour  at  the  same  time  between  the  thumbs  and  forefingers 
of  the  two  hands,  respectively,  and  if  there  is  any  defect  in 
the  texture  of  the  latter  portion  of  flour,  it  will  be  apparent 
in  the  difference  of  feeling.  This  test,  however,  is  not  a  very 
valuable  one  in  the  hands  of  a  novice,  but  is  a  very  valuable 
one  in  the  hands  of  an  expert ;  not  alone  to  determine  the  texture 
of  flour,  but  also  to  discover  whether  it  has  been  made  from 
good,  sound  wheat  or  not.  An  oily,  soapstony  feeling,  or  the 
absence  of  granulation,  indicates  that  the  flour  was  made 
from  tailings,  sweepings,  or  from  wheat  that  had  commenced 
to  sprout. 

Water  Tests. — Water  tests  are  the  most  perfect  methods 
of  determining  the  quality  of  flour  and  are  almost,  if  not 
wholly,  infallible  when  properly  made  in  connection  with  the 
dry  tests  for  cleanliness,  mustiness,  sweetness,  etc.  They  are 
as  follows : 


74  HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

For  Strength. — The  strength  of  flour,  which,  as  has  been 
stated,  depends  on  the  amount  and  quality  of  its  gluten,  can 
be  determined  indirectly,  with  a  sufficient  degree  of  approxi- 
mation for  practical  purposes,  by  the  elasticity  and  other 
characteristics  of  its  dough.  To  do  this,  two  ounces  of  the 
flour  are  mixed  with  one  fluid  ounce  of  water  (good  flour 
absorbs  water  in  about  this  proportion),  and  the  mixture  is 
kneaded  until  all  of  the  flour  is  incorporated  into  the  dough. 
The  dough  is  then  molded  with  the  hands  and  fingers  into  the 
form  of  a  biscuit,  about  %%  inches  thick  and  If  inches  in  diam- 
eter, with  a  flat  top  and  a  flat  bottom.  It  is  then  placed  on  a 
plate,  or  on  any  flat  surface,  and  allowed  to  remain  there  for 
thirty  minutes.  If  it  stands  up  and  retains  its  form  well,  and 
has  acquired  a  hardened,  dry  surface,  or  "crust,"  it  is  an  evi- 
dence that  the  gluten  is  sufficient  in  quantity  and  quality, 
and  that  the  flour  is  of  proper  strength.  If  it  falls  ai  id  flattens, 
or  "runs,"  it  is  an  evidence  that  the  gluten  is  deficient  in 
quantity  or  quality,  or  both,  and  that  the  flour  is  deficient  in 
strength.  If  dough  which  has  stood  the  preceding  tests  satis- 
factorily is  taken  into  the  hands,  and,  by  gently  pulling  it 
around  the  edge,  is  flattened  out  and  stretched  until  it  is  so 
thin  as  to  be  transparent,  and  does  not  tear  in  the  operation, 
it  will  be  a  further  evidence  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  gluten,  and  of  the  sufficiency  of  the 
strength  of  the  flour.  Then,  if  the  dough  which  has  stood 
the  foregoing  tests  satisfactorily  is  made  into  a  roll  about  5 
inches  long,  and  the  ends  pulled  gently  with  the  two  hands 
and  the  tension  relaxed,  and  the  roll  retracts  itself  and 
resumes  its  former  shape,  it  is  a  farther  evidence  of  suffl 
ciency  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  gluten,  and  of  the 
sufficiency  of  the  strength  of  the  flour. 

Another  water-test  method  of  determining  the  strength  of 
flour  from  the  amount  and  quality  of  its  gluten,  commonly 
called  "extracting  the  gluten,"  is  as  follows,  viz: 

1.  Weigh  out,  with  a  troy  scale,   1  ounce  of  tlie  Hour. 

2.  Measure  out,  in  a  graduated  glass,  I  fluid  drams  of  water, 
if  the  sample  to  be  examined  is  winter  wheal  flour,  or  1 1  fluid 
drams  if  it  is  spring- win 'at  flour. 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  75 

3.  Add  the  measured  water,  little  by  little,  to  the  weighed 
flour,  at  the  same  time  working  the  mixture  into  a  ball  of 
dough. 

4.  Place  the  ball  of  dough  between  the  palms  of  the  hands 
and  interlock  the  fingers;  submerge  the  ball  of  dough  thus 
held  in  a  bucket  of  water,  and  then  work  the  dough,  by  open- 
ing and  closing  the  hands,  until  all  of  the  starch  is  washed  out 
of  it,  which  will  be  indicated  by  the  absence  of  a  milky  color 
in  the  escajring  water.  What  then  remains  in  the  hands  of  the 
operator  is  hydrated  gluten,  which,  if  the  flour  is  of  proper 
strength  for  making  good  bread,  will  be  of  a  clear,  brownish - 
yellow  color,  very  elastic,  and  weigh  from  140  to  190  grains. 
Without  the  latter  yield,  unless  the  gluten  possesses  superior 
elasticity,  the  flour  is  deficient  in  strength. 

Badly  ground  or  badly  bolted  flour,  or  flour  made  from 
moist  or  damaged  wheat,  yields  less  than  the  minimum  quan- 
tity of  hydrated  gluten  above  stated.  Such  gluten  has  a 
grayish-brown  color,  an  admixture  of  more  or  less  fine  bran, 
and  is  deficient  in  elasticity. 

For  Smell  and  Taste. — Uncontaminated,  sound  flour  has 
the  taste  of  the  freshly  ground  meal  of  sound  wheat.  To 
determine  whether  sound  flour  has  absorbed  any  foreign  odor 
or  not,  place  a  small  portion  of  it  (3  or  4  ounces)  on  a  plate, 
pour  boiling-hot  water  on  it,  and  inhale  the  vapor.  If  the 
flour  is  contaminated  with  any  foreign  odor  it  will  be  readily 
detected  in  the  vap<  >v. 

General  Remarks. — In  low  milling,  wheat  yields  about  80 
per  cent  of  flour  of  all  grades,  the  lowest  grade  differing  little 
from  the  highest.  In  high  milling  the  yield  is  greater,  but 
only  about  45  per  cent  of  it  is  of  the  highest  grade,  and  the 
balance  is  divided  among  several  lower  grades  differing  much 
from  the  highest.  The  flour  is  not  heated,  and  therefore  not 
injured,  in  high  milling,  because  it  is  not  subjected  to  the 
great  friction  in  grinding  which  characterizes  low  milling. 
In  high  milling,  the  separation  of  the  non -nutritious  part  of 
the  grain,  i,  e. ,  the  husk  or  bran,  from  the  highly  nutritious 
phosphatic  nitrogenous  elements  contained  in  the  outermost 
layer  of  cells  next  to  the  husk  is  more  complete,  and  the 


76  HAN  DBOOK    OF   s  I   lis  I STENCE    STORES. 

yield  of  flour  correspondingly  greater  in  (quantity  and  richer 
in  quality  than  in  low  milling.  The  flour  is  also  white, 
because  it  is  free  from  particles  of  bran,  and  drier,  and  there 
fore  of  better  keeping  qualities,  because  the  wheat  is  no! 
moistened  preparatory  to  milling. 

The  art  of  high  milling  has  reached  such  a  degree  of  per- 
fection that,  by  its  perversion,  flour  can,  at  the  will  of  the 
miller,  be  robbed  of  its  gluten  to  any  desired  extent,  even 
until  it  is  nearly  as  white  and  destitute  of  nutritive  elements 
and  bread-making  properties  as  laundry  starch,  from  which 
it  then  does  not  very  much  differ  in  chemical  conrposition. 

Robbed  flour  can  be  detected  by  any  of  the  methods  here- 
tofore given  for  determining  the  strength  of  flour. 

Good  flour  contains — 

Per  cent. 

Water 13.  0 

Fibrin,  etc 10.  f> 

Starch,  etc 74.  3 

Fat 0.  8 

Cellulose 0.  7 

Mineral  matter 0.  7 

Total 100.  0 

These  constituents  are  so  proportioned  as  td  render  the 
bread  made  from  flour  a  highly  nutritious,  palatable,  and 
wholesome  food,  capable,  by  itself,  of  sustaining  the  life  and 
health  of  man. 

FRUITS,   CANNED. 

The  arrangement  of  a  cannery  is  a  matter  of  adaptation 
and  convenience,  and  maybe  more  or  less  elaborate,  accord 
ing  to  its  capacity.  The  model  cannery  is  one  in  which  every 
thing  moves  on  a  continuous  line  through  the  various  &h 

of  the  process,  so  that  one  department  does  not  Interfere  with 
another;  the  work  being  carefully  divided  and  systematized 

Writh  a  view  to  convenience  and  economy. 

The  first  operation  is  that  of  sorting  and  grading  the  fruit 
according  to  size  and  quality,  rejecting  all  that  is  overripe, 

unsound,  or  in  any  way  objectionable,  and  keeping  each 
variety  by  itself.  The  sound  fruit  is  then  passed  to  the  peel- 
ers   and    cutters,    who    prepare    it    for    packing  in    the    cans. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  77 

Nothing  is  thrown  away  at  this  stage,  the  waste  being  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  jellies  and  fruit  butter,  or  for  distill- 
ing; even  the  seeds  are  utilized,  being  sold  to  nurserymen 
and  manufacturers  of  chemicals. 

The  fruit  is  then  packed  in  cans  of  uniform  size.  The  cans 
are  then  passed  to  the  fillers,  who  fill  them  with  the  proper 
quantity  of  fruit.  If  the  fruit  is  apples,  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water  to  fill  the  interstices  is  added  to  each  can  after  it  is 
filled  with  the  prepared  fruit ;  or,  if  it  is  apricots,  peaches,  or 
pears,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  refined  cane  sugar  to  neutralize 
the  natural  acidity  of  the  fruit  is  put  into  the  can.  The 
filled  cans  are  then  passed  to  the  cappers  and  hermetically 
sealed,  after  which  they  are  placed  in  boiling  water  and  pro- 
cessed. The  time  of  processing  varies  from  3£  to  4|  minutes, 
according  to  the  kind  of  fruit.  Each  can  is  then  punctured 
with  an  awl  to  allow  the  steam  and  air  to  escape,  and  the 
puncture  at  once  closed  with  a  drop  of  solder.  The  cans  are 
then  returned  to  the  process  tank  and  reprocessed  for  from 
4£  to  5£  minutes,  according  to  the  kind  of  fruit,  after  which 
they  are  again  withdrawn  and  arranged  on  the  cooling  tables. 
Next  day,  when  entirely  cool,  the  cans  are  tested  for  leaks  by 
tapping  them  with  a  steel  rod,  and  the  defective  cans  removed. 
The  cans  are  then  labeled,  packed  in  cases,  and  placed  in  the 
storeroom,  where  they  remain  at  least  thirty  days  before 
handling  or  shipping. 

The  defects  most  common  in  canned  fruits  are : 

1.  Fermentation. — Indicated  by  swelling  of  the  cans. 

2.  Inferiority  of  the  quality  of  tin  used  in  making  the  cans. — 
Indicated  by  a  dull  leaden  appearance  and  light  weight  of 
cans  when  empty. 

3.  Inferiority  of  quality  of  fruit  or  sirup,  or  both. — Indi- 
cated by  their  appearance  and  taste. 

4.  Lack  of  aroma  and  flavor,  resulting  from  unsuitableness 
of  variety  of  fruit,  errors  in  process  of  canning,  underripe  or 
unsound  fruit,  etc. — Indicated  by  taste  and  odor. 

Inspection  of  Samples  of  Canned  Fruit.— Arrange  the 
sample  cans  of  fruit  by  themselves  on  a  table,  in  the  order  of 
the  bids  to  which  they  respectively  pertain,  and  then  proceed 
as  follows : 


r8  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

1.  Weigh  the  sample  cans  in  regular  order,  and  enter  on 
an  abstract  of  proper  form  the  number  of  bid,  name  of  bidder, 
brand,  gross  weight  of  can,  and  price. 

2.  Open  the  sample  cans  in  their  regular  order,  draining  off 
the  sirup  into  a  white  bowl,  leaving  the  fruit  in  the  can.  As 
many  white  bowls  are  required  as  there  are  samples.  White 
bowls  are  used  to  facilitate  the  determination  of  color  and 
clearness.  Weigh  the  cans  and  the  fruit,  with  the  sirup 
drained  off,  and  enter  the  weight  on  the  abstract. 

3.  Examine  the  fruit  of  each  sample,  and  note  on  the 
abstract  impressions  as  to  size,  color,  appearance,  and  flav<  >r. 

4.  Examine  the  sirup  for  color,  clearness,  flavor,  and  density, 
and  note  on  the  abstract  impressions  with  respect  thereto. 
In  determining  the  density  of  the  sirup,  use  an  ordinary  glass 
test  tube,  with  saccharometer. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  processing  the  sirup  is 
reduced  about  one-third  in  density  by  water  drawn  from  the 
fruit,  the  latter  absorbing  a  certain  proportion  of  sugar  from 
the  original  sirup.  The  saccharometer  will  theref  <  >re  indicate 
about  two-thirds  the  original  density  of  the  sirup. 

5.  Observe  the  quality  of  the  tin  used  in  making  the  cans. 
If  the  cans  have  a  dull,  leaden  appearance,  reject  them  a1 
once.  Cans  should  not  be  made  of  tin  inferior  to  that  known 
as  108-pound,  i.  e.,  tin  weighing  108  pounds  to  the  box  of  1 12 
sheets.  All  cans  should  be  soldered  on  the  outside.  Inside 
soldering  is  dangerous,  as  the  lead  coming  in  contact  with  the 
fruit  acids  is  likely  to  poison  the  contents  of  the  can, 

6.  And,  finally,  reject  all  fictitious,  irresponsible,  <>r  exor- 
bitant bids,  or  bids  based  on  samples  not  of  proper  quality; 
accept  the  lowest  remaining  bids  for  the  articles,  respectively, 
and  make  proper  notations  on  the  abstract. 

The  notes  should  be  filed  with  the  retained  copy  of  the 
abstract  of  proposals,  for  future  reference. 

Insim.ction  of  Canmid  Fruits  <>\  Deliver?  bv  Contract- 
ors.- I.  Examine  a  sufficient  number  of  cans  taken  at  ran- 
dom from  each  lot  of  an  article,  com  paring  results  with  the 
notes  taken  when  t he  samples  were  examined.  If  the  fruit 
is  equal  in  quality  to  the  simple,  and  is  in  proper  condition, 
proceed  to  examine  the  eases.     ( 'ases  for  canned  goods  should 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  79 

be  made  of  clear,  seasoned  lumber — sides,  tops,  and  bottoms 
-£  inch  and  ends  -J  inch  thick,  all  dressed  on  the  outer  side. 
They  should  be  well  made,  and  at  least  thirty-two  5-penny 
wire  nails  should  be  used  in  nailing  each  case.  Strapping 
should  be  required  when  goods  are  to  be  shipped  over  a  long 
wagon  route. 

2.  See  that  the  branding  or  stenciling  is  done  in  accordance 
with  regulations. 

The  shipping  weight  of  cases  containing  twenty -four  2£- 
pound  cans  of  peaches,  etc.,  is  from  65  pounds  to  67  pounds; 
that  of  cases  containing  twenty -four  2-pound  cans  of  jellies 
or  jams,  from  50  pounds  to  53  pounds. 

(See  "Apples,  canned;"  "Apricots,  canned;"  "Peaches,  can- 
ned;" and  "Pears,  canned.") 

FRUITS,  EVAPORATED. 

Evaporated  fruits  are  fruits  dried  or  evaporated  by  the 
Alden  process. 

This  process  was  first  used  on  a  large  scale  in  this  country, 
in  California,  about  twenty  years  ago,  but  its  use  has  since 
spread  eastward,  and  revolutionized  the  fruit-drying  industry 
of  the  whole  country. 

It  is  a  hot-blast  process,  and  its  operation  is  to  remove  the 
water  from  the  fruits  rapidly  and  convert  a  portion  of  their 
starch  into  sugar,  without  much  impairing  their  flavor  or 
changing  their  appearance. 

In  the  sun-drying  process,  which  is  a  slow,  still-heat  process, 
the  fruits  undergo  more  or  less  fermentation,  sustain  a  cor- 
responding diminution  of  sugar  and  impairment  of  flavor  and 
appearance,  and,  being  exposed  for  several  days  in  the  open 
air,  flies  deposit  eggs  on  them,  from  which,  under  favorable 
conditions,  worms  are  hatched. 

In  the  oven-drying  process,  which  is  also  a  still-heat  process, 
the  outer  surface  of  the  fruit  dries  first,  thereby  preventing 
the  escape  of  the  internal  moisture  and  inducing  fermenta- 
tion and  decay.  There  is  a  considerable  development  of  dex- 
trin, a  gummy  substance  which  causes  toughness  and  impairs 
flavor.  It  is  generally  conceded,  therefore,  that  the  "still- 
heat"  processes  do  not  give  the  best  results,  and  that  the 


80  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

hot-blast  or  Alden  process,  with  its  greater  penetrating  power 
and  rapidity  of  action,  has  the  effect  of  preventing,  instead  of 
inducing,  decay,  and  of  preserving,  instead  of  destroying,  the 
color  and  flavor  of  the  fruit. 

Evaporated  fruit  possesses  remarkable  keeping  qualities, 
being  capable,  even  after  having  been  kept  for  years,  of 
regaining  its  natural  form  and  flavor  if  soaked  for  a  few  hours 
in  water,  and  then  boiled  with  an  abundant  addition  of  water. 

The  process  of  evaporating  fruit  does  not  require  great 
technical  skill.  The  machine  for  evaporating  fruit  consists 
of  a  hollow  shaft  or  tower,  in  which  fresh  fruit,  containing 
from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  water,  is  arranged  in  moving  trays. 
Beneath  is  a  furnace,  which  supplies  a  strong  current  of  hot, 
dry  air  (from  194°  to  212°  F.),  which,  passing  up  through  the 
tower,  vaporizes  and  absorbs  the  water  of  the  fruit,  and  car- 
ries it  off  into  the  outer  atmosphere.  During  this  process 
the  fruit  is  continually  surrounded  by  the  developed  vapor, 
which  prevents  scorching  and  keeps  the  pores  of  the  fruit 
open  until  the  required  degree  of  dryness  is  reached.  The 
current  of  hot  air  is  then  turned  off,  and  the  processed  fruit 
taken  from  the  tower  and  spread  out  in  an  airy  room  to  dry 
off  its  surface  moisture.  The  windows  and  doors  of  the  dry 
ing  room  are  carefully  covered  with  screens  to  keep  out  flics 
and  insects.  When  thoroughly  dry,  the  fruit  is  pressed  into 
paper-lined  wooden  boxes,  which  are  then  nailed  up.  It  is 
then  ready  for  market. 

The  process  of  "sulphuring"  dried  fruits  consists  in  expos 
ing  them,  in  a  confined  place,  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur, 
for  the  purpose  of  bleaching  and  brightening  their  surface 
and  arresting  discoloration.  The  moderate  sulphuring  of 
dried  fruits  has,  perhaps,  no  injurious  effect  on  them;  but,  if 
it  is  overdone,  it  detracts  from  their  appearance  and  flavor 
and  gives  them  an  unnatural  white  color  and  an  insipid  taste. 
Sulphuring  evaporated  fruits  is  unnecessary. 

(See  "Apples,  evaporated/' and  "Peaches,  evaporate 


Gelatin  is  a  semi-solid  substance  of  soft,  tremulous  consist 
ency,  obtained  from  certain  parts  of  the  animal  body,  such  as 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  81 

tli*1  white  fibrous  tissue,  the  skin,  and  the  cartilage,  by  boiling 
thein  with  water. 

The  substance,  as  it  usually  exists,  contains  much  water, 
which  may  be  dried  out,  leaving  a  brittle,  glossy  mass,  which 
is  the  gelatin  of  commerce,  and  also  the  gelatin  kept  by  the 
Subsistence  Department  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted  men 
<  »f  the  Army. 

The  ordinary  gelatin  of  commerce  is  made  from  those  pieces 
i  >f  skins  which  are  cut  off  by  the  tanner  as  unfit  for  making 
leather,  in  consequence  of  too  great  thickness ;  but  the  best 
gelatin  is  made  from  the  skins  of  calves'  heads. 

The  skins  of  the  heads  are  cut  off  from  the  whole  calfskins 
after  they  have  passed  through  the  process  of  liming,  to 
remove  the  hair  from  them.  The  calves'-head  skins  are  next 
wTell  washed,  to  remove  the  lime,  and  all  the  pieces  of  flesh 
and  fat  are  carefully  cut  out.  Some  manufacturers  soak  the 
skins  for  a  short  time  in  a  dilute  solution  of  muriatic  acid,  to 
remove  any  remaining  portion  of  lime ;  but  this  practice  is 
injurious,  and,  therefore,  is  not  to  be  recommended.  The 
muriatic  acid  forms,  with  the  lime,  chloride  of  calcium,  which, 
if  not  carefully  removed  by  washing,  is  boiled  up  with  the 
skins,  and,  being  soluble,  remains  in  the  gelatin.  A  portion  of 
the  skins  is  also  dissolved  by  the  acid  and  is  thrown  away  in 
the  water  used  in  washing  them,  which  thus  occasions  a  loss 
in  yield  of  gelatin. 

In  some  cases  the  skins  are  boiled  whole ;  in  others  they  are 
cut  into  fine  pieces,  or  even  reduced  to  pulp  by  a  machine 
especially  constructed  for  the  purpose. 

If  the  skins  are  cut  into  fine  pieces,  instead  of  being  put 
into  the  boiler  whole,  the  gelatin  will  have  a  lighter  color  and 
better  appearance,  and  the  process  will  be  more  economical, 
as  one-half  of  the  time  required  for  the  boiling,  and  a  corre 
sponding  proportion  of  fuel,  will  be  saved.  As  the  gelatin  is 
darkened  by  prolonged  boiling,  reduction  of  the  skins  to  a 
pulp  is  of  very  great  importance. 

There  are  several  methods  of  manufacturing  gelatin,  but 
only  one  will  be  here  described.  It  is  one  of  the  best,  how- 
ever, and  is  as  follows,  viz : 

339 — 11 


82  HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORKS. 

The  hair  is  removed  from  the  calves -head  skins,  and  they 
are  well  washed,  as  above  indicated.  They  arc  then  cut  into 
small  pieces  by  hand  and  are  reduced  to  a  pnlp  by  a  machine. 
The  pnlp  is  then  boiled  with  water,  in  the  proportion  of  abont 
1  gallon  of  water  to  7  pounds  of  pulp — a  small  quantity  of 
salt  being  added  to  preserve  the  gelatin.  After  boiling  i  <  >r 
about  twelve  hours,  the  mixture,  which  now  consists  of 
hydrated  gelatin  and  the  excess  of  water,  is  strained,  and  the 
hydrated  gelatin  thus  i)rocured.  The  hydrated  gelatin  is 
clarified  with  ox  blood  or  white  of  eggs,  and  drawn  off  into 
shallow  coolers  to  congeal.  As  soon  as  it  is  solid,  it  is  cut 
into  strips  and  laid  on  wire  nets  to  dry,  in  a  room  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  about  80°  F.  If  the  temperature  of  the  dry- 
ing room  is  too  low,  air  bubbles  form  on  the  surface  of  the 
gelatin.  When  the  strips  of  gelatin  are  properly  dried,  they 
are  cut  into  small  rectangular  pieces  by  a  machine. 

The  pieces  are  put  up  into  packages  containing  1  ounce,  2 
ounces,  3  ounces,  and  4  ounces,  respectively. 

Gelatin  is  colorless,  transparent,  inodorous,  and  has  an 
insipid  taste.  It  may  be  tested  for  admixtures  of  glue  by 
dissolving  it  in  hot  water,  as  glue,  if  present,  will  then 
reveal  itself  by  its  characteristic  odor. 

The  chemical  composition  of  commercial  gelatin   is,   by 

weight,  as  follows,  viz: 

Per  cent. 

Carbon  50.  <>•"> 

Hydrogen »'>.  90 

Nitrogen 17.  40 

Oxygen 25.  65 

Total lM.OO 

Gelatin  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  as  food,  most  com 
monly  in  the  form  of  sou]),  but  it  lias  not  a  high  nutritive 
value 

HAMS. 

In  the  commercial  sense,  a  ham  is  the  thigh  of  a  hog  cured 
by  pickling  and  smoking. 

Standard  hams  are  cut  short,  are  well  rounded  at  the  butt, 
and  are  properly  faced.  The  legs  are  cut  oil'  at  or  above  the 
hock  joint. 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  83 

Hams,  after  being  cut  and  trimmed,  are,  in  a  chill  room, 
laid  on  a  rack  with  the  shank  ends  down,  and  chilled  to  a  tem- 
perature of  36°  F. ;  they  are  then  placed  in  vats  and  covered 
with  pickle,  having  a  strength  or  density  of  from  76°  to  80° 
Baume,  prepared  with  sugar,  saltpeter,  salt,  and  water,  and 
kept  there  from  sixty  to  ninety  days,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  hams  and  the  degree  of  the  curing  desired.  The  hams 
are  turned  over  two  or  three  times  during  the  curing,  and, 
when  taken  out,  are  washed  in  warm  water,  hung  in  the 
smokehouse,  and  allowed  to  drain  ten  hours.  They  are  then 
smoked  two  or  three  days,  and  left  hanging  one  day  to  dry. 
They  are  then  ready  for  use.  The  curing  of  hams  requires 
great  care,  as  all  the  details  of  the  process  must  be  strictly 
attended  to. 

If  hams  are  highly  cured,  i.  e. ,  made  very  salt,  mold  will 
not  grow  on  them.  The  presence  of  mold  on  hams,  therefore, 
is  evidence  of  mild  curing ;  and  mild-cured  hams  are  considered 
to  be  the  best.  If  uncanvased  hams  become  moldy,  the  mold 
should  be  washed,  off  in  warm  water,  and  the  hams  hung 
up  where  they  will  dry  quickly ;  and,  if  it  is  desired  to  renew 
their  freshly  smoked  appearance,  they  should,  when  dry,  be 
rubbed  with  glycerin.  There  is  no  method  of  preventing 
mold,  except  by  hard  salt  curing,  which  spoils  the  hams. 
Cheese  usually  molds,  but  it  is  not  generally  understood 
that  mold  impairs  its  food  qualities  or  its  flavor. 

Sugar-cured  hams  are  mild-cured  hams,  and,  whether  can- 
vased  or  uncanvased,  mold  readily  in  warm  or  moderately 
warm,  moist  weather.  Canvased  hams  always  show  more  or 
less  mold  after  being  kept  on  hand  one  or  two  months,  but  it 
seldom  improves  the  flavor  of  the  meat. 

Mold  is  of  extraneous  origin,  and  its  presence  on  meat  is  not 
an  indication  of  putrification  or  decay.  It  consists  in  minute 
parasitic  plants  derived  from  spores  deposited  on  the  meat 
from  the  atmosphere. 

Uncanvased  hams  should  not  be  kept  on  hand  between 
April  15  and  November  1,  which  is  the  season  for  flies.  Flies 
will  go  wherever  meat  is  accessible  and  deposit  their  eggs 
upon  it,  and  these,  under  favorable  conditions,  will  hatch  and 
produce  swarms  of  maggots  and  ruin  the  meat. 


84  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

For  commercial  purposes  hams  are  generally  put  up  in 
tierces;  but  for  Army  use  they  are  generally  required  to  be 
put  up  in  crates,  each  crate  containing  about  100  pounds,  net. 

Sugar-cured  hams  only  are  kept  by  the  Subsistence  Depart 
ment  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted  men  of  the  Army. 

The  milder-cured  hams  are  generally  preferred,  but  in  many 
cases  specified  brands  are  called  for,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  meet 
the  various  tastes  of  the  consumers. 

To  make  a  selection  as  to  quality  from  among  several  hams 
submitted  as  samples  with  bids,  two  or  three  slices  should  be 
similarly  cut  from  the  middle  of  each  ham,  and  each  set  of 
slices  cooked  separately  but  similarly;  and  all  of  the  slices, 
when  cooked,  tasted. 

Hams  for  Army  use  are  generally  inspected  as  to  size,  cut, 
trimming,  cure,  and  condition,  before  they  are  canvased;  and 
afterwards,  for  canvasing,  packages,  packing,  and  marking. 
If  hams  are  inspected  after  the}'  are  canvased,  the  hole  made 
in  the  canvas  by  the  trier  should  be  stopped  with  paste, 
mixed  with  yellow  wash. 

The  following  rules  for  selecting  hams  were  published  by 
a  well-known  packing  house : 

"First.  Never  buy  a  ham  because  it  is  offered  at  a  low 
price.     Cheapness  counts  one  against  its  being  choice. 

"Second.  Do  not  select  too  lean  a  ham.  The  fat  of  a  ham 
is  often  considered  so  much  waste  weight;  so  it  may  be,  in 
many  families,  but  one  would  not  select  a  very  lean  piece  of 
beef  for  roasting;  it  would  surely  be  dry  and  tough  when 
cooked.  A  well-fed  and  quickly  fatted  pig  will  furnish  ten 
der,  juicy,  and  fine-flavored  meal  ;  and  if  you  will  bear  this 
in  mind  you  will  be  willing  to  lose  a  little  extra  fat  for  your 
gain  in  the  superior  qualities  of  every  other  ounce  of  the 
meat.  Let  the  ham  be  well  rounded  and  plump,  rather  than 
thin  and  flat,  and  see  that  the  skin  is  thin  and  pliable. 

"Third.  Choose  freshly  cured  hams.    Formerly  the  year's 

supply  of  hams  was  cured  in  the  winter,  and  after  being 
smoked,  the  hams  had  to  be  canvased  to  protect  them  from 
the  ravages  of  flies,  and  in  this  shape  they  were  carried  through 
the  summer  and  fall,  to  meet  the  current  demands  of  those 
seasons.     This  necessarily  resulted  in  a  considerable  loss  of 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  85 

the  juices  of  the  hams  by  evaporation,  while  they  gradually 
became  so  densely  covered  with  mold  as  to  injure  their  flavor. 
By  the  present  method  of  curing  in  chill  rooms,  hams  of 
the  finest  quality  are  cured  even  in  the  hottest  weather,  so 
that  now  the  market  affords  newly  cured  hams  throughout 
the  year. 

1 '  Cured  meats  do  not  improve  with  age.  The  more  recently 
they  have  been  cured  the  better  they  are  when  cooked." 

HAM,   DEVILED. 

To  Make  Deviled  Ham.  —Fresh  hams  are  cured  in  a  sweet 
pickle,  made  according  to  the  same  formula  as  that  used  for 
making  the  sweet  pickle  for  curing  sugar-cured  hams.  The 
hams,  when  properly  cured,  are  removed  from  the  pickle,  and, 
after  being  washed,  are  cooked  by  boiling.  They  are  then 
carefully  trimmed,  and  the  meat  stripped  from  the  bone  and 
run  through  a  machine  that  minces  it  very  fine.  The  condi- 
ments are  then  added  and  the  minced  meat  run  through 
another  machine,  which  mixes  the  condiments  therewith  and 
fills  it  into  cans. 

Deviled  ham  should  be  prepared  in  cool  weather  only. 

It  is  put  up  in  £  pound  cans,  forty -eight  to  a  case,  and 
Ipound  cans,  twenty-four  to  a  case. 

Imitation  deviled  ham  is  made  of  the  waste  scraps  of  meat 
(beef  as  well  as  pork)  that  accumulate  in  packing  houses. 
Its  low  price  and  poor  flavor  are  sufficient  indexes  of  its  char- 
acter. 

HANDKERCHIEFS,   LINEN. 

In  determining  the  quality  of  linen  handkerchiefs  it  is  cus- 
tomary in  the  trade  to  use  a  magnifying  glass  made  for  the 
purpose,  called  a  linen  glass,  to  ascertain  the  number  of 
threads  to  the  inch,  also  the  perfection  or  imperfection  of 
their  twist. 

Handkerchiefs  of  different  makes  may  have  the  same  num- 
ber of  threads  to  the  inch,  but  upon  close  examination  there 
may  nevertheless  be  found  a  great  difference  in  the  manner 
in  which  the  threads  are  woven,  finished,  and  twisted.  A 
fine  handkerchief  will  show  the  threads  well  twisted,  perfectly 


86  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STOl: 

finished,  with  a  smooth  surface  and  very  closely  woven,  with- 
out any  loose  ends  protruding. 

Those  commonly  woven  show  about  76  threads  to  the  inch 
and  are  about  20  inches  square. 

The  best  handkerchiefs  are  made  in  England,  from  Irish 
flax. 

The  commercial  subpackages  are  shallow  paper  boxes  con- 
taining various  quantities — six,  twelve,  or  more  handkerchiefs 
each. 

HANDKERCHIEFS,  SILK. 

The  quality  of  silk  handkerchiefs  is  determined  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  linen  handkerchiefs,  but  they,  of  course, 
have  a  greater  number  of  threads  to  the  inch.  Those  generally 
purchased  have  about  92  threads  to  the  inch,  and  are  about 
24  inches  square. 

They  are  packed  in  shallow  paper  boxes  containing  twelve 
handkerchiefs  each. 

HARD  BREAD. 

Hard  bread,  sometimes  called  pilot  bread,  is  a  variety  of 
water  cracker.  It  is  generally  made  of  flour  and  water  only. 
Salt  is  sometimes  added,  at  the  rate  of  1£  pounds  to  each  100 
ixmnds  of  flour.  While  salt  improves  the  taste  of  hard  bread 
it  increases  its  liability  to  absorb  water  and  impairs  its  keep 
ing  qualities. 

The  flour  should  contain  little  or  no  bran.  as.  on  account 
of  the  hygroscopic  qualities  of  bran,  hard  bread  containing  it 
is  very  liable  to  rapid  deterioration  from  mold.  When  floor 
containing  bran  must  be  used,  no  salt  should  then,  under 
any  circumstances,  be  used. 

No  artificial  agency  being  used  to  lighten  hard  bread,  the 

flour  must  possess  of  itself  sufficient  strength  to  give  the 
bread  the  necessary  porosity  or  "spring." 

To  Make  Hard  Bread.—  The  selected  Horn- is  mixed  with 
sufficient  water  to  make  a  dry  dough  ;  the  dough  is  then  put 
into  the  kneading  machine  and  thoroughly  worked  ;  it  is  then 
run  through  the  "break,"  and  then  through  the  cutter. 
which    CUtS    tlie   sheets   of  dough  into  cakes  ready  for  baking. 

The  cakes  are  then  transferred  to  the  ovens,  where  they  bake 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  87 

very  quickly.  The  thickness  of  the  cakes  is  very  important ; 
they  should  not  be  so  thick  as  to  prevent  them  from  drying 
pr<  >perly,  nor  so  thin  as  not  to  have  the  proper  strength  to  pre- 
vent them  from  crumbling  in  transportation. 

The  quantity  of  water  required  for  use  in  making  the 
dough  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  different  flours.  If  the 
hard  bread  is  intended  for  immediate  use,  from  1  to  2  pounds 
of  salt  may  be  added  to  each  barrel  of  flour,  but  the  quantity 
should  be  diminished  as  the  length  of  time  for  keeping  the 
hard  bread  on  hand  increases. 

Good  hard  bread  is  of  light-yellow  color.  When  struck, 
it  should  give  a  clear,  almost  ringing  sound,  and  it  should 
readily  and  thoroughly  soften  in  the  mouth. 

The  quality  of  hard  bread  varies  with  the  grades  of  flour 
used.  The  baker  should,  therefore,  make  a  careful  selection 
of  the  flour  to  be  used. 

Hard  bread  should  not  contain  more  than  12  per  cent  of 
water.  The  nutritive  value  of  1  pound  of  hard  bread  is  equal 
to  1£  pounds  of  soft  bread  made  from  the  same  flour. 

Hard  bread  is  made  in  square  or  round  cakes,  and  is  put 
up  in  packages  to  suit  purchasers.  If  either  the  hard  bread  or 
the  boxes  are  not  thoroughly  dried,  the  hard  bread  is  liable  to 
mold;  both  should,  therefore,  be  kiln-dried.  If  liable  to  be 
taken  on  a  sea  voyage,  or  to  be  kept  for  a  long  time,  it  should 
be  put  up  in  48-pound  hermetically  sealed  tins,  packed  in 
crates,  two  tins  to  a  crate. 

When  packed  in  the  ordinary  way,  i.  e. ,  in  wooden  boxes, 
it  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place,  and  issued  before  it  is  one 
year  old. 

If  weevils  make  their  appearance  in  hard  bread,  they  can 
be  exterminated,  without  much  injury  to  it,  by  putting  it 
into  a  bake  oven  and  subjecting  it  to  a  temperature  of  325°  F. 
for  thirty  minutes ;  or  by  spreading  it  out  on  sheets  or  tar- 
paulins and  exposing  it  to  the  sun  for  three  or  four  hours. 

Hard  bread  possesses  many  advantages,  as  being  easily  trans- 
portable, and  being,  bulk  for  bulk,  more  nutritious  than  soft 
bread,  is  the  most  practicable  food  now  obtainable.  On  the 
other  hand,  its  use  is  not  free  from  grave  objections.  It  is 
deficient  in  fat,  after  a  time  it  seems  difficult  of  digestion,  and 


08  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

certain  it  is  that  men  do  not  thrive  well  upon  it  for  long 
periods.  It  should  be  issued  only  in  cases  where  it  can  not  be 
avoided. 

It  is  difficult  to  masticate  the  tough  morsels,  and  the  only 
remedy  is  to  steep  them  in  water,  coffee,  or  soup,  which  is  not 
always  practicable.  If  eaten  in  the  dry  state  and  insufficiently 
triturated,  the  hard,  angular  fragments  act  as  a  mechanical 
irritant  and  cause  diarrhea. 

The  French  have  for  the  past  few  years  endeavored  to 
replace  hard  bread  by  a  '  'pain  de  guerre. "  At  first  an  attempt 
was  made  to  desiccate  the  ammunition  bread,  but  the  plan  had 
to  be  abandoned.  It  was  found,  after  exhaustive  experiments 
in  the  military  bake-houses,  that  in  order  to  reduce  the  water 
in  a  loaf  weighing  750  grammes  (26  ounces)  to  12  or  14  per  cent, 
a  period  of  between  30  and  40  days  was  required;  and  move 
over,  that  when  the  residuum  was  remoistened  for  use,  its 
edible  qualities  were  far  from  satisfactory.  Private  enterprise 
was  enlisted,  the  result  being  a  long  series  of  failures,  all  more 
or  less  complete.  At  last,  in  December,  1892,  the  Administra- 
tion resolved  on  making  an  extended  trial  of  the  compressed 
bread  of  Perrier,  and  a  large  quantity  was  issued  t<>  the  Army. 
After  a  two-years'  trial,  in  both  France  and  Algeria,  the 
reports  called  for  were  fairly  favorable,  but  In 'fore  coming  to 
a  definite  conclusion  in  the  matter  the  Minister  of  War  issued 
a  circular,  dated  April  10,  1894,  calling  on  all  persons  engaged 
in  the  baking  trade  to  enter  into  competition  for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  war  bread,  that  is  to  say,  "a  substance  occupying 
very  small  space,  but  including,  nevertheless,  the  whole  of  the 
qualities,  nutritive  and  digestive,  of  ordinary  bread.  "  Accord 
ing  to  the  terms  of  the  circular,  the  required  product  was  to 
keep  good  for  a  year,  without  manifesting  the  slightest  sign 
of  deterioration.  Its  dimensions  should  admit  of  its  being 
packed  in  the  soldier's  valise,  and  its  substance  should  be  Buf 
ficiently  resistant  to  withstand  the  shocks  and  compression  of 
ordinary  transportation.  The  materials  used  were  to  consist 
exclusively  of  soft  wheaten  Hour,  leaven,  water,  and  salt.      In 

shape  each  piece  was  to  be  square  or  rectangular,  with  a  due 
proportion  of  crust;  the  crumb  was  to  be  white  and  porous; 

and  both  the  taste  and  smell  agreeable  to  the  senses.      Finally, 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  89 

the  dryness  must  be  perfect,  there  must  be  no  crumbling,  and 
every  lpaf  must  swell  out  completely  to  the  standard  size 
within  ten  minutes'  immersion  in  water  at  50°  C.  (122°  F. ). 
The  competition  seems  to  have  failed  to  produce  a  specimen 
superior  to  Perrier's  compressed  bread,  and  the  latter  has  been 
now  definitely  adopted  in  the  French  service.  The  issue  of 
biscuit  to  the  troops  ceased  on  the  1st  of  January,  1895. 

For  the  Subsistence  Department  of  the  United  States  kiln- 
dried  hard  bread  in  square  cakes,  put  up  in  thoroughly  sea- 
soned wooden  boxes  holding  50  pounds  net,  has  been  usually 
purchased.  Experience  in  the  German  Army  has  shown  that 
the  large-sized  pieces  of  hard  bread  were  unsatisfactory  to  the 
troops. 

The  military  attache  at  Berlin  has  reported  as  follows : 

'  'Relative  to  hard  bread,  Mr.  Englehardt,  Chief  of  Division 
of  the  Commissary  Department,  informed  me  that  during  the 
war  with  France  the  soldiers  threw  away  many  hundreds  of 
boxes  of  it  because,  in  his  opinion,  the  biscuits  were  too  large 
and  they  had  difficulty  in  biting  them." 

Recent  experiments  have  been  made  among  the  troops  in  the 
various  military  departments  of  the  United  States  with  the 
result  that  hard  bread  made  from  the  best  quality  of  soft 
winter-wheat  flour  in  cakes  1£  inches  square,  and  packed  in 
cartons  of  1  pound  each,  has  been  found  to  give  satisfaction. 

The  board  that  was  convened  to  consider  an  emergency 
ration  for  the  United  States  Army  has  reported,  in  its  conclu- 
sions, that — 

'  •  It  examined  certain  samples  of  hard  bread  submitted  to  it, 
and  concluded  that  the  best  sample  was  that  which  became 
soonest  permeated  when  soaked  in  hot  water.  The  sample 
which  gave  the  best  response  to  this  test  was  one  which  was 
slightly  aerated,  its  substance  being  evenly  pervaded  with 
minute  or  pin-point  vacuolations.  Its  density  was  somewhat 
lessened  by  this  porosity,  so  that,  pound  for  pound,  it  would 
occupy  somewhat  more  space  than  ordinary  hard  bread ;  but 
the  board  considered  that  this  could  be  offset  in  great  part  by 
exposing  the  aerated  hard  bread  to  a  higher  degree  of  heat 


90  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

than  is  used  in  the  baking  of  the  ordinary  bread ;  by  this  treat- 
ment weight  would  be  lessened  by  getting  rid  of  a  small  per- 
centage of  water,  the  percentage  of  the  nutritive  elements  being 

thereby  increased,  while  some  of  the  starch  would  be  con- 
verted into  dextrine.  The  ready  permeability  of  this  biscuit 
would  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  number  of  cases  of  diarrhea 
that  in  field  service  so  frequently  originate  in  imperfectly 
softened  and  masticated  hard  bread.  It  was  the  unanimous 
opinion  of  the  board  that  bread  thus  permeable  and  browned 
on  the  surface  would  be  improved  in  its  keeping  and  nutritious 
qualities,  and  be  more  acceptable  to  the  men  than  the  present 

issue. " 

HOMINY. 

Hominy  is  made  from  hard,  white  Indian  corn.  It  is 
classed  as  coarse,  flake,  pearl,  and  fine.  Fine  hominy  is  com- 
monly called  ''grits"  or  "samp." 

To  Make  Coarse  Hominy. — The  corn  is  kiln-dried  and 
cleaned.  It  is  then  coarsely  ground  by  the  millstone  pr<  k 
The  product  is  then  run  through  a  degerminator,  which  takes 
out  the  germs  of  the  grains,  and,  also,  all  soft  spots  that  may 
be  on  them.  The  product  yielded  by  the  degerminator  is 
coarse  hominy. 

To  Make  Flake  Hominyt. — Coarse  hominy  is  made  and 
run  into  a  steamer  and  steamed  until  it  is  soft.  It  is  then 
run  through  a  pair  of  rollers  and  rolled  out  flat,  i.  e.,  into 
flakes  and  dried. 

To  Make  Pearl  Hominy  and  Fine  Hominy. — These  are 
both  made  at  the  same  time  by  one  process.  The  corn  is 
coarsely  broken  by  the  roller  process,  and  the  product  run 
to  purifiers  and  bolts.  The  finer  portion,  or  grits,  passes 
through  the  meshes  of  the  1  >« >  1 1  and  is  spouted  t<>  a  bin.  while 
the  coarser  portion,  or  pearl  hominy,  tails  over  at  the  end  of 
the  bolt  and  is  spouted  to  another  bin. 

Hominy  is  put  up  in  barrels,  each  containing  'J<><>  pounds, 

net ;  in  sacks,  each  containing  LOO  pounds,  net  ;  and  in  0  pound 
cartons,  thirty-six  to  the  ease. 

Hominy  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  It  is  likely 
to  become  weevilly  in  summer,  and  musty  in  moist,  warm 
weather. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  91 

JAM,    BLACKBERRY. 

Blackberry  jam  is  crushed  or  disintegrated  blackberries 
preserved  with  sugar. 

The  blackberry  is  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  bramble  (Rubus 
ril/osus),  a  rather  shrubby,  herbaceous,  perennial  plant,  with 
angular  stems,  mostly  erect,  having  stout,  curved  prickles. 
It  grows  abundantly  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  along 
the  borders  of  the  fields  and  in  the  woods. 

The  blackberry,  notwithstanding  its  name,  is  not  a  true 
berry,  but  an  aggregated  fruit,  being  a  collection  of  small 
drupes  or  stone  fruits  on  a  fleshy  receptacle.  It  is  of  large 
size,  and,  when  ripe,  of  black  or  dark-purple  color  and  sweet 
taste. 

The  making  and  canning  of  blackberry  jam,  although  o 
simple  process,  requires  care  and  good  judgment.  The  sea- 
son for  making  it  is  from  July  1  to  August  31.  The  black- 
berries are  picked  over;  cleared  of  leaves  and  unsound, 
unripe,  and  other  defective  berries ;  washed  to  remove  dirt, 
ants,  and  other  small  insects ;  and  dried  on  galvanized-wire 
nets.  They  are  then  put  into  a  steam- jacketed  kettle,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  water  and  the  proper  proportion  of  white, 
granulated  cane  sugar  (about  35  pounds  of  sugar  to  40  pounds 
of  blackberries),  and  the  mixture  cooked  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency, being  stirred  continually  to  disintegrate  the  black- 
berries and  prevent  the  product  from  scorching. 

The  product,  now  become  blackberry  jam,  is  put  into  the 
cans  while  hot,  and  the  cans  are  immediately  soldered  up. 
This  completes  the  canning,  as  no  processing,  puncturing,  or 
reprocessing  is  required. 

For  Army  use,  blackberry  jam  is  put  up  in  2-pound  cans, 
twenty-four  to  the  case;  or  in  1-pound  jars,  twenty-four  to 
the  case. 

The  quality  of  blackberry  jam  can  be  determined  by  its 
taste  and  appearance.  When  of  good  quality,  blackberry 
jam  is  homogeneous  in  texture,  and  has  a  full,  rich,  pleasant 
flavor,  quite  peculiar  to  itself ;  and  by  these  characteristics  it 
can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  inferior  grades,  which 
are  generally  made  from  inferior  fresh  stock,  or  from  dried 
<  >r  canned  stock. 


92  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  apples  and  artificially- 
colored.  If  apple  is  present  in  blackberry  jam,  it  can  some- 
times be  detected  by  spreading  a  little  of  the  jam  on  a  piece 
of  glass,  when  the  apple  may  reveal  itself  by  its  stringy 
fiber. 

JELLY,    CURRANT. 

Currant  jelly  is  the  juice  of  the  currant  concentrated  to  a 
semisolid  consistency  and  sweetened  with  sugar  to  the  degree 
required  to  sufficiently  neutralize  its  acidity. 

The  word  "currant"  is  a  corruption  of  the  word  corinth. 
The  name  "corinth"  was  first  applied  to  a  small  dried  grape 
or  raisin  subsequently,  and  now,  called  the  Zante  currant, 
which  was  introduced  into  England  from  Corinth,  Greece; 
and  the  name  "currant"  came  to  be  applied  to  the  fruit  of 
the  shrubs  of  the  genus  Ribes,  because  of  its  resemblance  t<  > 
the  so-called  Zante  currant. 

The  currant  is  one  of  the  few  small  fruits  that  can  be  used 
for  making  jelly,  and  the  red  currant  is  the  best  variety  for 
the  purpose. 

The  season  for  making  currant  jelly  is  the  month  of  June. 

To  Make  Currant  Jelly. — The  currants  are  subjected  to  a 
sufficient  pressure  with  a  hydraulic  press  to  extract  the  juice. 
The  juice  is  then  put  into  a  steam-jacketed  copper  kettle. 
with  the  proper  proportion  of  granulated  white  cane  sugar, 
and  concentrated,  by  boiling,  to  the  exact  consistency  required 
to  sustain  its  own  weight  when  cool;  and  the  mixture,  now 
become  the  currant  jelly  of  commerce,  is,  while  hot,  filled 
into  cans,  which  are  immediately  soldered  up. 

Good  currant  jelly  is  of  a  clear,  bright,  crimson  color,  and 
has  a  decided  flavor  of  currant.  It  is  elastic,  and,  when  cut 
with  a  spoon,  should  not  adhere  to  it. 

It  is  adulterated  to  a  very  large  extent.  The  principal 
adulterants  are  apple  jelly,  gelatin,  glucose,  and  artificial 
coloring  matter.  Sometimes  the  sugar  is  deficient  in  quantity 
or  quality,  or  both. 

For  Army  use,  red-currant  jelly  only,  put  up  in  i2  pound 
cans,  twenty-four  to  a  case,  or  I  pound  jars,  twenty  tour  to 
a  case,  is  purchased. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  93 

LARD. 

Lard  is  the  oily  part  of  the  fat  of  slaughtered  hogs  separated 
from  the  tissue  by  heat.  The  process  of  separating  the  oily 
part  of  the  fat  from  the  tissue  is  called  'rendering." 

Lard  is  classified  according  to  the  kinds  of  fat  from  which 
it  is  rendered,  as  follows,  viz : 

Pure  leaf  lard,  choice  lard,  and  pure  lard. 

Pure  leaf  lard  is  made  from  the  leaf  fat  only ;  choice  lard 
from  leaf  fat  and  ham  trimmings,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
85  per  cent  of  leaf  fat  and  15  per  cent  of  ham  trimmings ;  and 
pure  lard  from  leaf  fat,  ham  trimmings,  and  back  fat,  in  the 
proportion  of  50  per  cent  of  leaf  fat  and  50  per  cent  of  ham 
trimmings  and  back  fat;  or,  from  leaf  fat,  ham  trimmings, 
back  fat,  and  gut  fat,  in  the  proportion  of  50  per  cent  of  leaf 
fat  and  50  per  cent  of  ham  trimmings,  back  fat,  and  gut  fat. 

Lard  is  further  classified  according  to  kinds  of  fat  from 
which  it  is  rendered,  or  the  modes  of  rendering  it,  as  neutral 
lard,  choice  kettle-rendered  lard,  and  prime  steam  lard. 

Neutral  lard  is  made  from  fresh  leaf  fat.  It  is  either  chilled 
in  a  cold  atmosphere  or  treated  with  cold  water,  to  remove 
the  animal  heat.  It  is  then  reduced  to  a  pulp,  in  a  grinder, 
and  passed  at  once  to  the  rendering  kettle.  The  fat  is  ren- 
dered at  a  temperature  of  from  105°  to  120°  F.  Only  a  part  of 
the  lard  is  capable  of  being  rendered  at  this  temperature. 
The  separated  lard  is  washed,  in  the  melted  state,  with  water 
containing  a  trace  of  sodium  carbonate,  sodium  chloride,  or  a 
dilute  acid.  The  lard  thus  formed  is  almost  neutral,  contain- 
ing not  to  exceed  25  per  cent  of  free  acid ;  but  it  may  contain 
a  considerable  quantity  of  water  and  some  salt. 

Neutral  lard  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  making  an 
imitation  of  butter,  oleomargarine,  which  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  ' '  butterine. "  The  residuum  of  the  neutral-lard  pro- 
cess is  subjected  to  steam  heat  under  pressure,  and  the  fat 
thus  obtained  is  an  inferior  quality  of  leaf  lard. 

The  residuum  of  the  neutral -lard  process  and  the  back  fat 
mixed  in  proper  proportions  are  rendered  in  steam-jacketed 
kettles,  and  the  product  is  called  choice  kettle-rendered  lard. 
The  hide  is  removed  from  the  back  fat,  and  both  the  leaf  and 


JM  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

back  fats  are  run  through  a  pulping  machine  before  they  are 
put  into  the  rendering  kettle. 

The  South  Omaha  process  or  mode  of  making  kettle -rendered 
lard  is  as  follows,  viz : 

Forty  per  cent  of  leaf  fat  and  the  balance  in  fat  trimmings 
are  put  into  a  hasher  and  cut  fine.  The  fats  thus  prepared 
are  then  put  into  a  steam-jacketed  kettle  and  boiled  for  a 
sufficient  time,  under  a  steam  pressure  of  85  pounds  to  the 
square  inch;  then  run  through  a  fine  cloth  strainer,  which 
retains  all  the  scraps,  and  the  liquid  portion,  or  lard,  which 
passes  through  the  strainer,  is  filled  into  cans,  or  pails,  as  may 
be  required  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  market. 

Choice  lard  is  defined  in  the  regulations  of  the  Chicago 
Board  of  Trade  as  follows,  viz : 

"Choice  Lard. — Choice  lard  is  made  from  leaf  fat  and 
fat  trimmings  only,  either  steam  or  kettle  rendered,  the  man- 
ner of  rendering  to  be  branded  on  each  tierce." 

Prime  steam  lard  is  made  of  the  head  of  the  hog.  after 
removing  the  jowl,  the  fat  of  the  small  intestines,  and  any 
fat  that  may  be  attached  to  the  heart  of  the  animal.  In 
houses  where  kettle-rendered  lard  is  not  made,  the  back  fat  and 
fat  trimmings  are  also  used.  When  there  is  no  demand  for 
leaf  lard,  the  leaf  fat  is  also  put  into  the  rendering  tank. 
Prime  steam  lard,  therefore,  may  sometimes  contain  all  of 
the  fats  of  the  whole  animal,  and  sometimes  only  portions 
thereof.  The  quantity  of  fat  yielded  by  each  animal  varies 
with  the  mode  of  cutting  and  trimming  the  meat.  A  hog  cut 
and  trimmed  for  the  domestic  market  will  yield  an  average  of 
about  40  pounds,  while  the  yield  of  one  cut  and  trimmed  for 
the  English  market  is  only  about  20  pounds. 

Prime  steam  lard  is  thus  defined  by  the  regulations  of  the 
Chicago  Board  of  Trade: 

"Standard  prime  steam  lard  shall  be  solely  the  product  of 
the  trimmings  and  other  fat  parts  of  hogs,  rendered  in  tanks 
by  the  direct  application  of  steam,  without  subsequent 
change  in  grain  or  character  by  the  use  of  agitators  or  Other 
machinery,  except  as  such  change  may  unavoidably  come 
from  transportation.     It  shall  have   the  proper  color,  flavor, 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  95 

and  soundness  for  keeping,  and  no  material  which  has  been 
salted  shall  be  included.  The  name  and  location  of  the  packer 
and  the  grade  of  the  lard  shall  be  plainly  branded  on  each 
package  at  the  time  of  packing. " 

At  large  packing  houses,  the  building  for  the  extraction  of 
lard  adjoins  the  main  building,  and  is  of  the  same  height, 
viz,  three  stories.  In  the  second  story  are  arranged  several 
rendering  tanks  made  of  heavy  boiler  iron,  12  feet  high  and 
6  feet  in  diameter,  capable  of  sustaining  a  high  pressure. 
The  tanks  extend  upward,  through  the  floor  above,  into  the 
third  story,  where  each  one  is  provided  with  a  large  manhole. 
The  leaf  fat,  gut  fat,  and  fat  trimmings,  in  the  proportions 
necessary  for  making  the  kind  of  lard  desired,  are  put  into 
the  tank,  when  it  is  closed,  and  steam  at  a  pressure  of  15 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  is  turned,  on  and  the  rendering 
process  continued  until  every  particle  of  lard  is  set  free. 
One  of  the  rendering  tanks  is  used  for  making  steam  leaf 
lard,  or  choice  lard,  another  is  reserved  for  making  ' ■  white 
grease,"  in  which  the  intestines,  etc.,  and  the  refuse  from  the 
slaughterhouse  are  placed  and  subjected  to  the  same  process. 
Another  rendering  tank  is  used  for  trying  out  the  carcasses 
of  hogs  which  have  been  killed  by  accident  while  in  the 
pens.  They  are  dumped  into  the  tank  whole,  and  the  product 
is  known  as  "yellow  grease. "  After  the  mass  in  a  rendering 
tank  has  been  steamed  for  a  proper  length  of  time,  a  faucet 
is  opened  about  the  middle  of  the  tank,  where  the  lard  and 
water  meet,  and  the  lard  is  drawn  off  in  a  very  large  open  iron 
tank  called  a  'clarifier,"  which  has  a  steam- jacketed,  concave 
bottom ;  here  the  lard  is  heated  to  300°  F.  which  sends  all  light, 
foul  matter  to  the  top  as  a  thick  scum,  where  it  is  skimmed 
off,  all  heavy  matter  settling  to  the  bottom ;  a  faucet  is  then 
opened  at  the  bottom  and  the  sediment  withdrawn.  The  clari- 
fied lard  is  then  run  into  coolers  and  thence  into  barrels, 
which  are  weighed  and  branded.  After  the  lard  has  been 
drawn  from  a  tank,  the  large  manhole  at  the  bottom  is 
opened,  and  the  whole  greasy  residuum  is  drawn  out  into  large 
wooden  tanks  set  even  with  the  floor.  This  residuum  is  again 
subjected  to  boiling  heat,  and  all  the  remaining  lard  is  set 


96  HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

free  and  rises  to  the  top.  The  water  is  then  drawn  off,  leav 
ing  a  solid  residuum,  which  is  used  as  a  fertilizer.  In  this 
residuum  will  be  found  bones  and  even  teeth,  so  soft  as  to  be 
readily  crushed  by  the  fingers.  The  bristles  and  the  hair  are 
saved  and  sold,  and  but  little  of  the  hog  is  wasted. 

The  open  kettles  hold  from  2;500  to  5,000  pounds,  and  the 
rendering  tanks  from  18,000  to  35,000  pounds. 

Changes  of  temperature  have  a  damaging  effect  upon  lard. 
Lard  that  keeps  well  in  a  uniform  temperature  will  eventually 
become  rancid  if  exposed  to  a  varying  temperature  Lard 
X)ut  up  at  a  temperature  of,  say,  50°  F.  melts  and  deteriorates 
if  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  80°  or  90°  F.,  as  may  happen 
during  transportation.  The  best  packers  stiffen  their  lard 
intended  for  shipment  to  a  warm  climate  with  beef  stearin  or 
heavier  fats,  which  do  not  melt  at  so  low  a  temperature  as 
pure  lard, 

The  mark,  "Guaranteed  as  pure  lard,"  frequently  seen  on 
packages,  is  not  a  guarantee  of  the  keeping  qualities  of  the 
lard,  but  only  that  it  is  made  exclusively  from  the  fat  of 
hogs.  Numbers  of  such  packages  are  opened  in  the  South, 
after  exposure  to  the  heat  there,  and  found  to  be  rancid. 

Properties  of  Pure  Lard. — The  specific  gravity  of  pure 
lard  varies  rapidly  with  the  temperature.  It  is  not  easy  to 
take  the  specific  gravity  of  lard  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
from  95°  to  104°  F.,  inasmuch  as  below  these  temperatures 
solidification  is  apt  to  begin.  The  specific  gravity,  therefore, 
is  usually  taken  at  from  95  to  104°  F.,  or  at  the  temperature 
of  boiling  water,  viz,  212^  F.  At 95°  F.  the  specific  gravity 
of  lard  is  about  0.890;  and  at  212°  F.,  about  0.800.  referred  to 
water  at  95°  F.  The  specific  gravity  of  pure  lard  <\m>±  not 
differ  greatly  from  many  of  the  substances  used  in  adulterat 
ing  it,  but  it  is  distinctly  lower  than  that  of  cotton  seed  oil, 
and  this  is  of  great  value  in  analysis. 

The  melting  point  <>f  lard  is  a  physical  characteristic  <>f 

great  value.  The  melting  point  of  the  fat  of  the  hog  depends 
upon  the  part  of  the  body  from  which  it  is  taken  The  tat 
from  the  foot  has  the  lowest  melting  point  and  the  fat  of  the 
intestines  the  highest— the  first  being  95.18    P.  and   the  last 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  97 

111.  20°  F.  The  melting  point  of  the  fat  of  the  head  is  95. 9°  F. , 
while  the  kidney  fat  has  a  melting  point  of  108.5°  F.  In  gen- 
eral, it  may  be  said  that  the  melting  point  of  steam  lard  is 
about  98.6°  F.,  which  is  the  mean  of  ten  samples  examined. 

While  the  melting  point  can  not  be  taken  as  a  certain  indi- 
(  at  ion  of  the  purity  of  lard,  nevertheless  a  wide  variation 
from  104°  F.  in  the  melting  point  should  lead  to  a  suspicion  of 
its  genuineness,  or  indicate  that  it  was  made  from  some  special 
part  of  the  animal. 

Properties  of  Adulterated  Lard. — To  a  nonexpert,  adul- 
terated lard  is  not  appreciably  different  in  appearance  from 
pure  lard.  An  expert  is,  however,  generally  able  to  distin- 
guish an  adulterated  lard  from  a  pure  one  by  the  taste,  odor, 
touch,  and  grain.  There  is  usually  enough  lard  in  the  adul- 
terated article  to  give  it  the  taste  and  odor  of  genuine  lard. 

In  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  the  chemist  is  unable  to 
determine  absolutely  the  degree  of  adulteration  of  a  sample 
of  lard.  He  can,  however,  state  with  confidence  whether  or 
not  a  given  sample  is  adulterated,  and  in  the  comparison  of 
two  widely  different  samples,  he  may  safely  assert  that  one  is 
adulterated  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  other.  Further  than 
this,  which  for  practical  purposes  is  far  enough,  the  present 
state  of  knowledge  will  not  permit  him  to  go. 

As  a  general  observation,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  steam 
lards  of  commerce  have  a  more  constant  composition  than 
pure  lards  made  in  other  ways  from  special  fats. 

Steam  lards  have  a  peculiar,  strong  odor,  which  distin- 
guishes them  from  choice  kettle-rendered  lards. 

In  this  country  the  most  common  adulterants  of  lard  are 
tallow,  cotton -seed  oil,  and  water. 

All  kinds  of  lard  contain  from  1  to  7  x>er  cent  of  water. 

To  determine  the  quantity  of  water  in  a  sami)le  of  lard,  a 
weighed  portion  of  the  sample  is  subjected  to  a  boiling  heat 
until  bubbles  of  steam  cease  to  escape  therefrom,  and  then 
weighed;  the  loss  in  weight  thus  ascertained  is  the  weight 
of  the  water. 

Stearins. — The  stearins  are  the  more  solid  portions  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  fats  remaining  after  the  more  fluid 

339 13 


98  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

portions  have  been  removed  by  pressure.     The  stearins  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  lard  compound  are  lard  stearin,  derived 

from  lard,  and  oleo  stearin,  derived  from  beef  tallow.  Cotton 
seed-oil  stearin  is  used  chiefly  in4the  manufacture  of  bnl 
terine. 

Lard  Stearin. — Lard  stearin  is  used  in  making  lard  com 
pound.  It  is  made  as  follows:  Prime  steam  lard,  if  properly 
crystallized  and  of  the  right  temperature  (from  45  to  55  F., 
in  winter,  and  from  55°  to  65  F.,  in  summer),  is  sent  at  once 
to  the  press;  if  not  properly  grained,  it  is  melted  in  a  crystal 
lizing  room,  at  from  50°  to  60°  F.,  until  the  proper  grain  is 
formed.  The  lard,  in  the  form  of  cakes,  is  then  wrapped  in 
cloth,  each  cake  containing  from  10  to  20  pounds.  The  cakes 
are  then  placed  in  a  large  press,  with  suitable  septa  to  facili 
tate  the  egress  of  the  oil.  These  presses  are  sometimes  from 
40  to  50  feet  in  length  and,  when  first  filled,  from  12  to  18  feet 
high.  The  pressure  is  applied  very  gradually.  The  lard 
expressed  is  the  well-known  lard  oil  of  commerce,  which  is  used 
for  illuminating  and  lubricating  purposes;  and  the  residuum 
is  lard  stearin,  and  is  used  in  making  lard  compound.  It  has 
about  5  per  cent  of  free  fatty  acid  (less  than  lard  oil)  and  crys 
tallizes  in  long  needles,  which  give  it  a  tough  texture. 

Oleo  Stearin. — This  product  is  made  chiefly  from  the  caul 
fat  of  the  ox.  This  fat  is  rendered  in  open  kettles,  at  alow 
temperature.  The  resulting  tallow  is  placed  in  cars  in  a  gran 
ulating room,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  for  from  thirty  six 
to  forty -eight  hours,  at  a  temperature  of  from  80  .to  tin  P.  The 
contents  of  the  cars  are  then  mixed  and  placed  on  a  i  evolving 
table,  where  they  are  made  into  cakes;  these  are  wrapped  in 
Strong  cotton  cloth  and  placed  at  the  temperature  of  !)<>  r 
in  a  powerful  press,  where  a  gradual  pressure,  becoming  very 
strong  at  the  end,  is  applied  for  one  or  two  hours.  The 
expressed  oil,  known  as  oleo  oil,  is  used  in  the  manul'aet  are  <»t* 
butterine.  The  stearin  is  removed  from  the  press  as  hard, 
white  cakes,  and  is  used  in  ad  ill  t  era  t  Lng  lard.     The  oil  is  some 

times  tillered  with  a  small  percentage  of  fuller's  earth  to 

improve  its  color  and  brightness. 

In  regard  to  receptacles  for  lard,  wooden  t  abs  are  preferable 

to  tin  cans.     It  keeps  sweet  in  the  former,  but  becomes  rancid 


HANDBOOK   OP  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  99 

in  the  latter.  It  is  stated  upon  good  authority  that  lard  put 
up  in  wooden  receptacles  has  been  known  to  keep  sweet  for 
three  years.  The  chief  objection  to  wooden  receptacles  is 
their  great  liability  to  leak. 

Lard  should  be  kept  in  cold  storage,  where  it  will  keep 
indefinitely.  If  subjected  to  heat  sufficient  to  melt  it,  while 
in  storage,  it  will  become  rancid ;  and  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  this  is  one  of  the  marked  characteristics  of  pure 
lard. 

For  the  trade,  lard  is  put  up  in  tierces,  iron-bound  barrels  or 
kegs,  3  pound  and  5-pound  tin  cans,  and  3-pound  and  5-pound 
tin  pails.  The  tin  cans  or  x>ails  are  packed  in  wooden  cases  of 
twelve  cans  or  pails  each. 

Cottolene. — This  is  a  compound  made  of  cotton-seed  oil 
and  beef  suet.  It  was  largely  advertised  at  the  World's  Fair, 
at  ( liicago,  in  1893,  and  has  taken  quite  a  hold  upon  the  pub- 
lic as  a  substitute  for  lard. 

MACARONI. 

The  constituents  of  macaroni  are  flour  and  water  only. 

Very  strong  flour,  i.  e.,  flour  containing  a  large  percentage 
of  gluten,  is  essential  to  the  making  of  good  macaroni. 

To  Make  Macaroni. — Flour  and  water,  in  proper  prbpor- 
tions,  are  placed  in  the  kneading  trough  of  a  mechanical  mixer 
and  kneaded  into  a  very  stiff  dough.  The  kneading  process 
takes  about  forty -five  minutes.  The  dough  is  then  put  into  a 
cylinder  about  15  inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches  long,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  there  is  a  steel  jilate  or  die,  about  an  inch  in 
thickness,  perforated  with  holes  of  the  diameter  of  the  maca- 
roni to  be  made.  In  each  of  these  holes  is  a  mandrel,  which 
forms  the  well-known  hollow  of  the  macaroni.  This  cylinder 
is  provided  with  a  follower  or  piston  operated  by  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  lower  part  of  the  cylinder  is  incased  in  a 
steam  jacket,  filled  with  live  steam,  to  keep  the  dough  warm 
and  elastic  without  adding  moisture.  Hydraulic  pressure  of 
about  1,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch  is  applied  to  the  fol- 
lower, and  the  dough  is  thereby  forced  through  the  holes  in 
the  die,  emerging  therefrom  in  the  form  of  tubes,  which  are 
cut  into  pieces  of  the  proper  length.     These  are  placed  in  trays 


100  BANDBOOK    «>F  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

and  very  slowly  dried,  the  process  requiring  about  eighl  days. 
The  dried  tubes  are  macaroni,  and  are  ready  for  packing. 

Thorough  and  slow  drying  is  essential. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  flour  will  make  92  pounds  of  maca 
roni,  i.  e.,  from  2  to  6  per  cent  of  the  water  in  the  flour. 
together  with  that  added  in  the  making,  must  be  eliminated 
before  the  macaroni  is  properly  dried. 

Good  macaroni,  when  boiling  water  is  poured  on  it  and 
boiled  for  forty-five  minutes,  should  swell,  turn  white,  and 
become  tender. 

Macaroni  is  very  liable  to  become  infested  with  weevils, 
which  can  be  detected  by  opening  the  end  of  a  package,  bold 
ing  it  vertically,  and  striking  it  smartly  several  times  upon 
a  sheet  of  white  paper.  The  weevils,  if  present,  will  fall  upon 
the  paper. 

It  is  packed  in  bulk  in  25-pound  boxes,  and  also  in  1-pound 
packages,  twenty -four  or  twenty-five  to  the  box. 

Macaroni  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

MACKEREL. 

The  mackerel  is  a  well-known  food  fish  of  the  genus  Scomb*  r. 
The  most  important  species  are  Scomber  vernalis,  of  tin- 
North  American  Atlantic  waters,  and  the  Scomber  vulgaris, 
of  the  European  seas.     It  is  a  migratory  fish,  and  its  migra 

tions  are  said  to  be  as  extensive  as  tbose  of  the  herring.  It  i- 
a  very  voracious  fish,  feeding  principally  upon  the  fry  of 
other  fishes.     It  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  attains  an  average  of 

L5  inches  in  length  and  10  pounds  in  weight.  The  fish  rap 
idly  become   soft   after  being  taken    from    the    water,    and    if 

they  are  to  be  used  fresh  they  must  be  eaten  promptly.  The 
natural  flavor  of  the  mackerel  is  well  retained  in  the  salted 
state. 

Mackerel  of  the  different  species  are  found  in  all  t  li«-  north 
ern  seas,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Black  Sea.  and  the 

Sea  of  Azof;  and  in  the  waters  of  Australia,  the   East    Indies, 

and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     The  common  mackerel  of  our 

northeastern  coast  is  found  iu  all   the  North  Atlantic  waters. 

Mackerel  fishing  is  extensively  carried  on  in  Massachusetts, 

Gloucester  being  the  principal  center  of  the  industry  in  this 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  101 

country.  The  fishing  season  is  from  June  to  November, 
inclusive.  The  fishing  is  carried  on  in  vessels  ranging  in  size 
from  45  to  90  tons,  and  carrying  a  crew  of  about  fifteen  men. 
The  seine,  which  is  now  mostly  used  for  taking  the  fish,  did 
not  come  into  general  use  until  1873.  It  weighs  about  2,000 
pounds,  and  is  about  1,000  feet  long,  150  feet  wide  (or  deep) 
in  the  middle,  and  narrower  at  the  ends.  The  seine  is  carried 
by  a  large  boat,  which  has  two  small  boats  as  tenders.  When 
a  shoal  of  mackerel  is  "sighted,"  the  boats  tow  the  seine  so 
as  to  head  off  the  shoal,  and  then  one  end  is  carried  around 
so  as  to  inclose  the  fish  in  the  circle  formed  by  the  seine. 
The  vessel  is  then  brought  alongside  and  the  fish  taken  from 
the  seine  by  dip  nets.  Sometimes  the  fish  escape  by  diving 
under  the  seine.  About  two  hours  are  required  to  make  a 
cast  of  the  seine,  and  sometimes  fish  enough  to  make  250  or 
300  barrels  of  salt  mackerel  are  taken  at  a  single  cast. 

In  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  the  mackerel  are  taken  by  hook 
and  line,  their  habits  there  being  unfavorable  for  seining. 

The  process  of  dressing  mackerel  consists  of  four  opera- 
tions, viz,  splitting,  gipping,  plowing,  and  washing.  The  split- 
ter splits  them  at  the  rate  of  1,500  per  hour.  He  passes  the 
knife  along  the  back  of  the  fish  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  leaving 
the  backbone  on  the  right  side,  and  throws  them  into  a  tub. 
Two  gippers  stand  at  each  tub,  remove  the  gills  and  entrails, 
and  throw  the  fish  into  a  barrel,  called  the  wash  barrel,  where 
they  are  allowed  to  soak.  The  fish  are  afterwards  taken  oat 
singly,  laid  on  a  board  skin-side  downward,  and  a  light  stroke 
of  the  plow  (a  knife  of  peculiar  shape)  is  given  on  each 
side,  from  the  head  toward  the  tail,  two-thirds  the  length  of 
the  fish.  This  operation  is  sometimes  postponed  until  the 
fish  are  landed. 

Salting  is  done  by  laying  the  fish  singly  in  the  barrel  and 
sprinkling  a  small  handful  of  salt  on  each.  In  this  condition 
they  are  allowed  to  remain  overnight,  when  some  of  the 
pickle  is  drawn  off,  and  the  barrels  are  filled  to  the  proper 
weight,  headed  up,  and  stored  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel.  A 
little  less  than  a  bushel  of  salt  is  used  in  making  a  barrel  of 
salt  mackerel,  and  it  takes  five  wash  barrels  of  fish  to  make  a 
barrel  of  salted  fish.    After  being  landed,  the  fish  are  assorted, 


102  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STOB 

inspected,  and  branded  by  an  official  inspector  appointed  by 

the  State. 

Mackerel  arc  graded  according  to  quality,  as  "Bloaters," 
"Selects,"  and  "Extras;"  and  according  to  size,  as  "No.  L," 
"No.  2,"  and  "No.  3." 

No.  l's  should  measure  not  less  than  L 3  inches  long  from 
the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  crotch  of  the  tail;  No.  2's  should 
not  be  less  than  1 1 .1  inches  long;  and  all  smaller  than  No.  2's 
are  No.  3's. 

These  lengths  determine  quite  accurately  the  age  of  the  fish. 
The  terms  "Bloaters,"  "Selects,"  and  'Extras,"  refer  to  the 
quality  or  condition  of  the  fish — not  to  its  size.  The  fatter  the 
fish  the  better  the  quality.  The  meat  should  be  tender,  firm, 
and  of  a  (dear  color;  the  inside  of  the  belly  sufficiently  tender 
to  break  on  slight  pressure.  The  "messing"  of  mackerel 
consists  in  removing  the  heads  and  tails. 

Mackerel  are  designated  in  the  market  by  the  following- 
terms,  according  to  the  locality  where  caught,  as  "Norways," 
caught  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  and  "Shores,"  which  are 
caught  near  the  shore  and  are  generally  not  so  fat  as  "Nor- 
ways." Those  caught  off  Prince  Edwards  Island  are  called 
"Islands,"  the  meat  of  which  is  of  a  dark,  reddish  color,  and 
tough.  Those  caught  in  the  Bay  of  St.  Lawrence  are  called 
"Bays,"  the  meat  of  which  is  still  darker  than  that  of  the 
"Islands." 

The  commercial  packages  of  mackerel  are  barrels  of  200 
pounds,  half  barrels  of  100  pounds,  and  kits  of  k-2(),  15,  and  10 
pounds,  respectively. 

"Extra  No.  1  Mess,"  and  "No.  2  Mess,"  "Norways,"  or 
"Shores,"  put  up  in  10  or  L5  pound  kits,  are  the  best  for 
Army  use. 

Mackerel  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  damp  place  (the  h 
incut  of  a-  building  is  the  most  suitable  place),  and  kept  well 
brined,  us  they  soon  become  discolored,    "rusty,"  and  impaired 
in  quality  if  the  brine  leaks  oul  and  leaves  them  dry. 

Mackerel  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun  for  any  length 
of  time,  and,  if  it  is  transported  by  railroad  in  hot  weather, 
it  should  be  carried  in  a  refrigerator  car,  if  practicable;  or, 
if  by  vessel,  if  should  be  stored  in  the  hold. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  103 

MATCHES. 

Matches  were  invented  in  1650,  soon  after  the  discovery  of 
phosphorus. 

The  earliest  form  of  match  was  a  splint  of  wood  with  one 
end  dipped  in  melted  sulphur,  to  render  it  easily  inflammable, 
which  was  ignited  by  the  flame  produced  by  rubbing  phos- 
phorus between  the  folds  of  rough  paper.  Another  form, 
known  as  the  "chemical  match,"  was  a  splint  of  wood  with 
one  end  tipped  with  a  composition  of  potassium  chlorate, 
sulphur,  gum,  and  sugar,  which  was  ignited  by  dipping  it  in 
a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  kept  in  a  vial.  It  was  not  until 
1829  that  the  lucifer  match  was  invented.  Its  use  spread 
rapidly  and  its  manufacture  soon  became  an  important 
industry. 

Matches  are  manufactured  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  though 
the  winter  months  are  considered  the  most  favorable.  The 
wood  used  for  match  splints  is  the  best  quality  of  white  pine, 
and  in  this  country  is  obtained  mostly  from  Michigan.  It  is 
fashioned  or  cut  into  proper  lengths  and  sizes  by  machinery 
for  the  purpose.  The  splints  are  dipped  in  paraffin  half  their 
length,  and,  afterwards,  the  same  ends  are  tipped  with  a 
composition  composed,  generally,  of  amorphous  phosphorus, 
niter,  whiting,  coloring  matter,  and  glue.  The  paraffin  serves 
as  the  kindling,  to  conduct  the  flame  to  and  ignite  the  wood, 
and  the  whiting  and  glue  to  give  the  composition  the  neces- 
sary solidity  and  adhesiveness.  Should  the  head  of  a  match 
break  off  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  light  it,  it  indicates  that 
the  glue  used  in  making  the  composition  was  not  of  good 
quality.  The  best  Irish  glue  should  be  used.  Sulphur  matches 
burn  slowly,  because  sulphur  is  used  as  the  kindling  material 
instead  of  paraffin. 

Red  or  amorphous  phosphorus  is  now  generally  used 
instead  of  common  phosphorus.  In  safety  matches,  the  phos- 
ph<  >rus  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  box,  and  the  other  materials 
on  the  splint,  which  can  only  be  ignited  by  being  brought  in 
contact  with  the  red-phosphorus  composition  on  the  side  of 
the  box. 

A  good  match,  when  thoroughly  lighted  and  then  extin- 
guished, should  leave  no  live  coal.    The  safety  match  with  the 


104  HANDBOOK    OP  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

paraffin  conductor,  is  the  only  kind  of  match  furnished  for 
Army  use. 

The  theory  of  the  safety  match  is  to  separate  the  potassium 
chlorate  and  the  phosphorus,  which  are  united  in  the  head  of 
the  ordinary  match.  The  composition  for  the  safety  match 
is  made  of  potassium  chlorate  or  nitrate,  antimony,  sulphur, 
and  glue.  This  match  will  not  light  unless  rubbed  against  a 
surface  containing  phosphorus.  Some  manufacturers  put  a 
small  quantity  of  phosphorus  into  the  composition  of  the  head 
of  their  safety  matches.  A  match  made  with  such  a  com- 
position is  not  a  safety  match. 

For  the  trade,  matches  are  packed  in  paper  boxes,  and  these 
in  wooden  cases  of  5  gross  each,  which  are,  also,  suitable 
packages  for  Army  use. 

Matches  should  he  stored  in  a  dry  place,  either  on  the  first 
floor  or  in  the  upper  stories,  but  never  in  the  basement  or 
any  room  under  ground,  as  they  are  very  susceptible  to  injury 
by  dampness.  The  same  care  as  to  dryness  while  they  are  in 
store  is  requisite  while  they  are  in  transportation. 

MILK,  CANNED. 

Canned  milk  is  commonly  known  as  "condensed  milk." 
Condensed  milk  is  a  term  applied  to  a  preparation  of  pre- 
served milk.  The  process  of  condensing  and  preserving  milk 
is  as  follows:  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  received  at  the  factory, 
it  is  passed  through  the  strainer  into  tin1  receiving  vat;  from 
there  it  is  conducted  through  another  strainer  into  the  heat- 
ing cans,  each  containing  about  20  gallons.  These  cans  are 
then  set  in  hot  water,  and  kept  there  until  the  milk  in  them 
attains  a  temperature  of  from  150  to  L75  P.  It  is  then  passed 
through  another  strainer  into  a  large  vat.  at  the  bottom  of 
which  is  a  coil  of  copper  pipe  through  which  steam  circulates, 
and  the  milk  is  thereby  heated  to  212  F.  The  best  quality  <>t* 
granulated  cane  sugar  is  then  added,  iii  the  proportion  of  i; 
pounds  to  a  gallon  of  milk.  The  milk  is  then  drawn  off  into 
a  vacuum  pan,  having  a  capacity  of  8,000  quarts.  It  is  kept 
in  the  vacuum  pan,  and  subjected  to  the  heal  of  a  steam  coil 
tor  about  three  hours,  during  which  time  al  out  75  per  cenl 
of  its  water  is  removed  by  evaporal  ton.     It  is  then  drawn  off 


HANDBOOK   OP  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  105 

into  cans  having  a  capacity  of  about  40  quarts  each,  which 
are  placed  in  cold  water  and  the  milk  allowed  to  cool  to  a 
little  below  70  F.  It  is  then  poured  into  large  drawing  cans, 
furnished  with  faucets,  from  which  it  is  drawn  into  the  small 
commercial  cans,  which  are  taken  to  the  soldering  table  and 
immediately  soldered  up. 

Milk  prepared  as  above  described  can  be  kept  without 
deterioration  for  a  long  time,  and  can  be  used  for  all  the  pur- 
poses of  ordinary  milk. 

( Jt  >ndensed  milk  is  also  prepared  by  a  process  similar  to  the 
one  above  described,  except  that  no  sugar  is  used. 

It  is  put  up  in  1 -pound  cans,  forty-eight  to  the  case. 

MOLASSES. 

Molasses  is  the  brown,  viscid,  uncrystallizable  sirup  which 
drains  from  sugar  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  It  contains 
water,  uncrystallizable  sugar,  coloring  matter,  and  more  or 
less  crystallizable  sugar.  It  differs  from,  and  is  inferior  in 
quality  to,  treacle,  sometimes  called  ' '  sugarhouse  molasses, " 
the  sirup  which  drains  from  sugar  in  the  process  of  refining. 

As  there  is  always  more  or  less  crystallizable  sugar  left  in 
molasses,  and  as  the  quality  of  molasses  varies  directly  with 
the  proportion  of  crystallizable  sugar  held  in  solution,  there 
is  great  diversity  in  the  quality  of  molasses. 

Molasses,  especially  the  poorer  grades,  is  often  adulterated 
in  different  ways,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  its  appearance 
and  taste.  The  principal  adulterant  is  glucose,  and  the  prin- 
cipal manipulation,  "  bleaching, "  by  means  of  chemicals. 

Molasses  comes  into  market  about  November.  It  is  very 
subject  to  fermentation,  and,  therefore,  should  not  be  trans- 
ported in  warm  weather.  When  it  ferments  it  expands  very 
considerably,  and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  receptacles 
containing  it  should  have  a  very  considerable  "outage"  (not 
less  than  20  per  cent),  to  prevent  them  from  bursting,  in  case 
fermentation  sets  in. 

General  Remarks. — Molasses  and  sirup  are  liable  to  fer- 
ment or  sour  when  exposed  to  heat;  it  is  therefore  advisable 
to  keep  them  in  cool  cellars,  and,  if  in  retailer's  hands,  in  as 
339 u 


106  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

cool  and  dark  a  place  as  their  storerooms  afford.  They  may 
begin  to  ferment  during  moving  or  transportation  ;  and,  when 
received  at  a  post,  should  be  placed  in  a  cellar,  the  bungs 
taken  out  of  the  barrels,  and  allowed  to  remain  quiet  for  a 
few  days,  when  the  fermentation  will  cease  without  injurious 
effects.  When  sorghum  molasses  begins  to  ferment,  the  fer- 
mentation can  be  stopped  by  opening  the  hung  and  placing  a 
small  piece  of  butter  in  the  barrel. 

Molasses  is  put  Up  by  the  manufacturers  for  the  trad*'  ill 
large  barrels.  For  Army  use.  it  should  be  put  up  in  barrels. 
or  10-gallon  kegs,  with  outage,  as  above  specified. 

MUSHROOMS. 

Mushrooms  are  one  of  a  large  class  of  cryptogamic  plants 
known  as  the  Finxji. 

They  are  cellular  plants  having,  generally,  a  more  or  less 
rounded  thallus  or  head  supported  upon  a  stalk,  with  spores  or 
seeds  upon  the  under  surface  or  gills.  They  are  very  numer 
ous,  being  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  are  usually  of 
very  rapid  growth,  often  springing  up  and  coming  to  maturity 
in  a  single  day.  Many  species  art-  used  for  food,  while  others 
are  very  poisonous. 

Mushrooms  are  largely  cultivated  in  old  quarries,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Marseilles  and  Paris,  France,  whence  conic  most 
of  the  canned  mushrooms  used  in  this  country. 

The  principal  requisites  for  growing  mushrooms  are  a  rich 
soil,  moisture,  and  absence  of  light,  The  absence  of  lighl 
gives  them  their  characteristic  straw  color. 

They  arc  gathered  daily  and  canned  while  fresh,  as  they 
wilt  and  become  tough  very  speedily.  After  the  mushrooms 
are  put  into  cans,  sufficient  water  is  added  to  till  the  interstices. 
Sometimes  a.  little  suit  is  put  into  the  water. 

The  best  grade  of  canned   mushrooms  contains  only  "hut 
tons"   or  small    mushrooms,   and  these  should  be   unbroken, 
free    Prom    dark    spots,    and    of   a    uniform    color.      The   cans 
should  be  well  tilled  witli  uiusli rooms.     The  poorer  grades 

often  contain  more  stems  than  heads  and  more  liquor  than 
substance 


HANDBOOK    OF  ENCE    STORES.  107 

They  are  put  up  in  1 -pound  cans,  one  hundred  to  the  case. 
and  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

MUSTARD. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  mustard  seed  known  to  com- 
merce, among  them  the  " Dutch, "  "Bombay,"  "English," 
•Trieste,"  "California,"  and  "Kentucky."  As  to  color,  it  is 
sometimes  designated  as  black  or  white,  but  generally  as 
1  n< iwni  or  yellow.  Manufactured  mustard  is  known  as  colored 
and  uncolored. 

The  blend  of  English  and  Trieste  mustards  has  a  high 
reputation,  but  the  cultivated  California  mustard  compares 
favorably  with  it. 

California  produces  more  mustard  seed  than  any  other 
State,  not  only  supplying  the  Eastern  States,  but  shipping  a 
considerable  quantity  to  Europe  as  well.  The  crop  of  1893 
was  about  10,000,000  pounds. 

The  crop  is  harvested  in  August  and  September.  The  seed 
is  "seasoned"  before  it  is  ground,  i.  e.,  it  is  kept  on  hand  six 
months  or  a  year.  It  is  then  carefully  cleaned,  freed  from 
chaff,  dust,  and  dirt,  and  crushed  between  powerful  iron 
rollers ;  the  crushed  product  is  placed  in  strong  woolen  bags 
and  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  6,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch 
in  a  hydraulic  press.  The  cakes  are  then  piled  up  in  a  well- 
ventilated  room,  so  as  to  let  the  air  circulate  around  them, 
and,  after  one  or  two  months,  they  are  pounded  or  broken  up 
fine  and  bolted.  The  mustard  thus  prepared  is  ready  for 
canning. 

Mustard  is  generally  colored  with  turmeric  to  make  it  more 
sightly ;  and,  when  not  in  excess,  it  does  not  affect  the  taste, 
and  is  not  considered  an  adulterant. 

The  brown  seed  has  the  best  flavor  and  the  greatest  pun- 
gency, and  the  yellow  yields  the  best  oil  and  the  most  flour, 
but  is  weaker  in  flavor  and  strength.  A  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  the  brown  and  yellow  California  mustard  seeds,  if 
properly  manufactured,  is  as  good  as  the  imported  article. 

The  principal  adulterants  of  ground  mustard  are  wheat 
flour,  starch,  corn  meal,  and  linseed  meal;  the  first  three  can 
be  detected  by  iodine,  the  other  by  the  microscope.  A  com- 
parative test  for  strength  can  be  made  by  making  an  infusion 


108  HANI  >P.<  >(  >K    0 1 '   S I  'INSISTENCE    STORES. 

of  about  15  or  20  grains  of  a  sample  of  mustard  in  4  or  5 
ounces  of  boiling  water,  and  an  infusion  of  a  similar  quantity 
of  the  standard  sample,  and  tasting  them. 

It  is  packed  for  the  trade  in  J-pound,  1 -pound,  and  1 -pound 
tins,  twenty-four,  twenty-four,  and  twelve  cans,  respectively, 
to  the  case. 

Mustard  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and  will  keep 
well  for  a  year  or  more,  but  it  does  not  improve  with  age. 

MUSTARD,  FRENCH. 

French  mustard  is  a  compound  of  ground  mustard  seed  (a 
mixture  of  brown  and  yellow,  more  of  the  yellow  being  used, 
as  it  produces  more  floui  and  is  less  pungent  than  the  brown)  ; 
burnt  flour  or  starch  as  a  filler,  and  vinegar  and  ground  spices, 
such  as  cloves,  allspice,  malegueta  pepper,  etc.  The  flavor  of 
onions  is,  also,  sometimes  added  to  the  compound. 

Different  manufacturers  have  different  formulas  for  mak- 
ing French  mustard.  Like  all  compounds,  its  quality  depends 
upon  the  quality  and  proportions  of  the  ingredients. 

To  Make  French  Mustard. — The  mustard  seed  is  usually 
soaked  in  vinegar  overnight,  then  ground,  when  the  spices, 
or  flavoring,  and  the  filler  are  added;  the  mixture  is  then 
reground  several  times,  until  it  has  a  smooth,  jelly-like  tex- 
ture, when,  after  it  is  cooled,  it  is  ready  for  bottling. 

The  vinegar  and  mustard  seed  are  sometimes  mixed  in  tin4 
grinding,  and  are  sometimes  allowed  to  stand  for  three  or 
four  weeks  to  ferment.  It  is  questionable  whether  this  should 
be  done.  If  properly  made,  it  improves  after  being  bottled. 
and  a  separation  of  the  ingredients  or  a  trace  of  fermentation 
indicates  poor  manufacture  or  excessive  adulteration.  The 
adulterants  are  starch,  roasted  flour,  coloring  matter,  and 

often  rape  seed. 

French  mustard  should  have  an  agreeable  taste,  be  smooth 
and  uniform  in  text  lire,  and  keep  for  a  period  of  no1  less  than 
two  weeks,  after  being  opened,   without  any  deterioration 

except  drying  at  the  to]). 

It  is  put  ii])  in  wide  mouthed  glass  bottles  of  various  sizes, 
usually  '.pound  and  1  pound.     These  are  stopped  with  corks 


HANDBOOK    OF   STBSISTENCE    STORES.  109 

and  sealed  with  wax,  and   packed  twenty-four  and  twelve 
bottles  to  the  case,  respectively. 

It  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

NEEDLES. 

Needles  are  put  up,  according  to  size,  in  papers  containing 
twenty-five  needles  each.  " Sharps"  and  "betweens"  are 
put  up  in  separate  papers.  For  Army  use,  needles  should  be 
called  for  in  subpackages,  each  containing  seven  papers,  each 
1  taper  containing  one  of  the  size  from  No.  2  to  No.  9,  inclusive, 
sharps  and  betweens,  assorted. 

Darning  needles  are  put  up  in  papers  containing  twenty- 
five  needles  each. 

For  Army  use,  the  following  sizes  should  be  called  for,  viz, 
Nos.  14,  16,  and  18. 

Needlebooks  are  made  of  morocco.  Each  book  contains 
one  paper  of  needles  of  size  No.  6 ;  one  of  size  No.  7 ;  one  of 
size  No.  8 ;  one  of  size  No.  9 ;  one  of  size  Nos.  5  to  9,  assorted ; 
seven  darning  needles,  and  one  bodkin. 

All  needles  are  put  up  in  patent  wrappers  to  prevent,  by 
absorption,  any  moisture  from  accumulating  on  them  and 
causing  rust. 

The  needlebook  is  well  adapted  for  use  of  soldiers. 

The  quality  of  needles  is  determined  by  their  temper  and 
finish.  The  finish  of  the  eye  is  particularly  important,  as 
any  imperfection  thereof  would  cause  the  thread  to  break. 

Needles  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place,  as  they  are  very 
liable  to  rust  if  exposed  to  moisture. 

NUTMEGS. 

The  nutmeg  is  the  kernel  of  the  fruit  of  a  small  tree  of  the 
genus  Myristica,  which  is  indigenous  to  the  Molucca  Islands, 
but  is  cultivated  in  many  parts  of  the  East  Indies. 

The  tree  attains  a  height  of  about  30  feet,  and  has  a  straight 
stem  and  a  branching  head.  Its  flowers  are  male  and  female, 
small,  and  of  a  yellow  color,  and  the  opposite  sexes  grow  on 
different  trees.  The  fruit  is  a  nearly  spherical  drupe,  of  the 
size  of  the  pear,  of  a  yellowish  color  without  and  almost  white 


110  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

within.  After  the  ripening  of  the  drupe,  its  external  cover- 
ing or  hnsk  becomes  dry,  and  opens  into  two  nearly  equal 
longitudinal  valves,  disclosing  the  inner  covering  or  arillus, 
which  is  of  a  beautiful  blood-red  color,  and,  when  cured,  is 
commercially  known  as  "mace."  Beneath  the  arillus  is  a 
brown,  shining  shell  containing  the  kernel  or  nutmeg. 

There  are  two  species  of  nutmeg  trees — the  royal,  which 
produces  the  long  nuts  that  have  the  arillus  much  larger  than 
the  nut,  and  the  queen,  which  produces  the  more  valuable 
round  nuts  that  have  the  arillus  extending  only  halfway 
down  the  nut. 

Nutmeg  trees  are  raised  from  the  seed  and  do  not  flower 
until  they  are  eight  or  nine  years  old.  When  they  are  two 
years  old  the  male  trees  are  all  headed  down  and  grafted  with 
scions  taken  from  the  female  trees,  reserving  only  sufficient 
male  stock  for  fecundation. 

The  natives  of  the  East  gather  the  fruit  by  hand,  taking  oil" 
and  rejecting  the  outer  shell  or  husk.  The  arillus  is  then 
carefully  taken  off  and  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  for  one  day. 
which  changes  its  beautiful  blood-red  color  to  a  light  brown  ; 
it  is  then  removed  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  and  allowed 
to  remain  eight  days  more,  when  it  is  moistened  with  sea  water 
to  prevent  its  drying  too  much  or  losing  its  oil,  and  it  is  then 
put  into  bags  and  firmly  pressed,  when  it  becomes  the  mace 
of  commerce.  The  nuts,  which  are  still  covered  with  their 
woody  shell,  are  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  for  three  days,  and 
afterwards  dried  before  a  fire  until  they  will  rattle  when 
shaken;  they  are  then  beaten  with  small  sticks,  in  order  t<» 
remove  the  shells,  which,  under  the  operation,  break  into 
pieces  and  fly  off.  The  nuts  are  then  assorted  into  three  l«>ts : 
the  first,  composed  of  the  largest  and  most  perfect  nuts,  is  for 
exportation  ;  the  second  is  for  the  domestic  trade;  and  the  third, 
composed  of  the  unripe  and  damaged  nuts,  is  burnt. 

The  nutmegs,  after  having  been  thus  selected,  are  pickled 
in  limewater  of  a  semifluid  consistency,  made  with  lime 
obtained  by  calcining  marine  shells.  Into  this  mixture  the 
nutmegs,  contained  in  small  baskets,  are  plunged  t  WOOT  three 

times,  or  until  they  are  completely  covered  with  the  lime. 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  Ill 

They  are  then  laid  in  heaps  and  allowed  to  sweat,  after  which 
they  are  packed  in  barrels  or  bales  for  market. 

The  best  nutmegs  come  from  Penang.  They  are  about  1 
inch  long,  shaped  like  a  damson  plum,  pale  brown,  furrowed 
on  the  exterior  and  gray  inside,  with  veins  of  red  running 
through  them. 

Nutmegs  are  worthless  when  their  oil  is  dried  out  of  them. 
T<  >  determine  whether  a  nutmeg  has  lost  its  oil  wholly  or 
partly,  pierce  it  with  the  point  of  a  knife  or  other  sharp  instru- 
ment ;  the  oil,  if  present,  will  appear  in  the  puncture  in  greater 
or  less  quantity,  proportionately  to  the  amount  contained  in 
the  nut.  Another  method  is  to  cut-  the  nut  into  halves,  and 
if  the  oil  is  dried  out,  it  will  crumble  in  the  cutting. 

Nutmegs  are  graded  according  to  their  number  to  the  pound. 
For  Army  use,  extra-limed  nutmegs,  running  from  65  to  70  to 
the  pound,  should  be  purchased.  Nutmegs  running  less  than 
this  number  to  the  pound  are  deficient  in  oil. 

OATMEAL. 

Oatmeal  is  the  ground  seeds  of  the  oat  plant  {Avena  sativa), 
and  belongs  to  the  order  Graminece  or  grass  family  of  plants. 
The  seeds  of  the  oat  plant,  commonly  called  "oats/'  are,  by 
reason  of  their  chemical  composition,  peculiarly  well  adapted 
for  use  as  food  for  man — the  proportions  of  both  flesh  formers 
and  heat  givers  being  unusually  large. 

The  oat  seed  has  a  hard  and  indigestible  husk,  which  must 
be  broken  before  the  gastric  juices  of  the  stomach  can  act 
upon  the  kernel.  It  also  has  long,  sharp  spikes,  which,  if  not 
removed,  would  accumulate  in  and  irritate  the  intestines.  It 
is,  therefore,  necessary  to  remove  the  entire  husk,  with  the 
spikes,  in  the  process  of  making  oatmeal. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  oatmeal,  viz,  the  "  steel  -cut,  "which 
is  granulated,  and  the  ' '  rolled, "  which  is  flaked. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  oats  for 
making  oatmeal,  as  good  oatmeal  can  be  made  only  from  the 
best  quality  of  large  white  oats. 

To  Make  Oatmeal.— The  oats  are  first  thoroughly  cleaned— 
freed  from  dust,  dirt,  and  foreign  matter.     From  the  cleaner 


112  HANDBOOK    OP  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

they  go  to  the  dry  kiln  ;  this  is  an  important  part  of  the  manu- 
facture, and  varies  in  different  mills.  The  great  desideratum 
is  to  thoroughly  dry  the  oats  without  steaming  them  in  their 
own  moisture;  therefore,  a  low  heat,  at  first  about  220  l\. 
and  afterwards  from  290°  to  300°  F.,  is  maintained.  Perfecl 
ventilation  is  necessary,  i.  e.,  free  passage  of  hot  air,  in  order 
that  the  moisture  may  be  carried  off.  The  drying  process  is 
continued  for  about  two  hours.  They  are  then  graded  acc<  >rd 
ing  to  size,  then  taken  to  the  hulling  stones,  and  from  there 
run  through  currents  of  air  to  remove  the  hulls  dust,  and  fuzz. 
If  it  is  desirable  to  make  "steel-cut"  oatmeal,  the  oats  thus 
prepared  are  next  ground,  and  the  product  is  steel  cut  oat- 
meal. 

Or,  if  it  is  desirable  to  make  "rolled"  oatmeal,  the  oats. 
after  leaving  the  hullers,  are  subjected  to  a  jet  of  steam  of 
about  00  pounds  pressure  (care  being  taken  to  have  the  steam 
as  dry  as  possible),  for  the  purpose  of  toughening  them  so 
that  they  will  not  pulverize,  but  flatten  out  into  flakes,  when 
subjected  to  the  pressure  of  the  rolls.  After  passing  through 
the  rolls,  the  crushed  or  flaked  oats  travel  in  i  thin  stream  <>u 
a  "draper"  for  some  distance  to  remove  the  tine  dust  and  any 
excess  of  moisture.  The  product,  after  cooling,  is  "rolled" 
oatmeal. 

The  rolled  oatmeal  will  keep  as  well  as,  and  perhaps  better 
than,  the  steel-cut,  because  the  steaming  process  cooks  it  a 
trifle  more,  and  also  removes  the  fusel  oil.  which,  in  a  warm 
climate,  is  liable  to  become  rancid. 

Rolled  oatmeal  cooks  more  readily  than  steel  cut.  To  cook 
it  properly,  it  should  be  mixed  with  boiling  water  and  allowed 
to  stand  and  simmer,  without  stirring,  for  about  twenty  min 
Cites.      Steel-CUt  oatmeal  should  be  cooked  gently  for  from  one 

to  two  hours,  and  stirred  frequently  to  prevent  scorching. 

Rolled  oatmeal  is  about  the  only  cereal  food  thai  can  be  used 
with  satisfactory  results  without  further  cooking.  When  no 
fire  is  available,  if  mixed  with  cold  water,  with  a  little  salt  or 
sugar,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  one  or  two  hours,  it  makes  a 
palatable,  wholesome,  and  nutritious  food  and  drink  com 
bined.      Rolled  oatmeal    is  much   better  for  this  purpose  than 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  113 

steel-cut  oatmeal,  as  it  softens  more  readily  and  has  less  of 
the  raw  taste. 

A  pound  of  rolled  oatmeal  and  from  2  to  4  ounces  of  sugar, 
with  3  quarts  of  water  per  man  per  day,  will  subsist  marching 
troops  for  a  week  without  injury  to  their  health. 

The  chemical  composition  of  oatmeal  is,  by  weight,  as  fol- 
lows, viz: 

Per  cent. 

Water 5. 0 

Fibrin,  etc 16. 1 

Starch,  etc 63.0 

Fat 10.1 

Cellulose  and  lignose 3. 7 

Mineral  matter 2.1 

Total 100. 0 

Steel-cut  oatmeal  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  wheat 
flour,  barley  flour,  or  corn  meal. 

Both  kinds  of  oatmeal  are  packed  in  2-pound  cartons,  some 
brands  forty-eight  and  others  seventy-two  to  the  case,  and  in 
half  barrels  containing  100  pounds. 

Oatmeal  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  not  near  arti- 
cles that  emit  odors.  It  deteriorates  with  age,  and,  therefore, 
the  supply  thereof  should  be  frequently  renewed. 

OIL,  OLIVE. 

Olive  oil  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  olive,  the  fruit  of 
the  Olea  europcea  or  olive  plant,  which,  besides  having  the 
distinction  of  bearing  the  fruit  that  yields  the  finest  food  oil 
known  to  man,  has  also  that  of  being  the  emblem  of  peace. 

The  olive  plant  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  sometimes  attaining 
a  height  of  20  or  30  feet.  It  has  an  upright  stem  with  numer- 
ous branches,  opposite  leaves,  small  white  flowers,  and  a  stone 
fruit  or  drupe.  The  drupe  is  of  medium  size  and  ovoidal 
shape,  and  has  a  skin  of  a  greenish,  whitish,  or  violet  color. 
The  oil  is  contained  in  the  flesh  surrounding  the  stone. 

The  olive  tree  is  very  long-lived,  some  specimens  being  con- 
sidered 1,000  years  old.  It  is  supposed  to  have  come  originally 
from  Asia.  It  grows  well  in  Syria,  and  has  been  naturalized 
in  the  south  of  France,  in  Italy,  Spain,  the  northern  states  of 
339 — 15 


114  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

Africa,  Mexico,  and  California.     It  has  been  cultivated  from 

the  earliest  times,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  olive  tree.  Pliny  vaguely 
describes  fifteen  varieties  as  being  cultivated  in  his  day.  while, 
at  the  present  day,  at  least  thirty  varieties  are  cultivated  in 
France  and  Italy  alone.  The  cultivation  of  the  olive  tree  was 
introduced  into  Mexico  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  California, 
where  it  now  thrives  in  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  locations, 
was  then  a  part  of  Mexico. 

The  long-leaf  variety  is  the  one  generally  grown  in  Prance 
and  Italy,  and  the  broad-leaf  variety  in  Spain.  The  long- 
leaf  variety  produces  the  finest  oil,  the  oil  of  the  broad -leaf 
variety  being  of  a  strong,  rank  flavor. 

To  Make  Olive  Oil. — When  the  olives  begin  to  ripen,  their 
greenish  color  changes  to  a  wine  color,  and  they  are  then  fit 
for  making  oil.  They  are  gathered,  carried  to  a  mill  and 
bruised,  the  millstones  being  set  at  such  a  distance  from  each 
other  that  they  willnot  crush  the  stones  of  the  olives.  The  pulp 
thus  prepared  is  put  into  bags  made  of  rashes,  and  these  are 
put  into  a  press  and  subjected  to  a  moderate  pressure ;  and 
thus  is  obtained,  in  considerable  quantity,  a  greenish,  semi 
transparent  oil  of  very  superior  quality,  which  is  the  finest 
olive  oil,  and,  being  from  the  first  pressing,  is  called  "  virgin  " 
oil.  After  the  first  pressing,  the  pulp  is  moistened  with  water 
and  again  pressed.  The  product  of  this  pressing  is  an  inferior 
quality  of  table  oil.  The  pulp  is  then  broken  up,  put  into 
vats  with  water  and  allowed  to  remain  there  until  it  fer 
ments,  when  it  is  again  pressed.  The  oil  yielded  by  the  pulp 
at  the  third  pressing  is  of  very  inferior  quality,  and  is  used 
for  making  soap  and  for  other  manufacturing  purposes. 

Adulterations. — Olive  oil  is  extensively  adulterated  with 
cotton-seed  oil,  peanut  oil,  and  other  vegetable  oils.    It  is,  also, 

sometimes  adulterated  with  lard. 

There  are  various  methods  of  determining  the  presence  of 
adulterants  in  olive  oil.      The  color  reactions    which   result 
from  treatment  with  acids  and  alkalies  are  important  i 
and  are  fully  discussed  in  various  published  works.     Perhaps 
the  simplest  test  is  that  by  means  of  nitric  acid,  viz: 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  115 

How  to  Detect  Adulterated  Olive  Oil.— (From  a  paper 
read  before  the  Liverpool  Chemists'  Association.)  "Mix 
thoroughly  one  part  of  strong  nitric  acid  (specific  gravity 
1.42)  with  nine  parts  of  oil  to  be  tested,  and  pour  the  mixture 
into  a  white  porcelain  dish  capable  of  holding  at  least  ten 
times  the  quantity.  Apply  heat  gently  until  action  between 
the  acid  and  the  oil  is  fairly  set  up,  then  remove  the  source 
of  the  heat  and  stir  well  with  a  glass  rod  until  the  action  is 
over.  Pure  olive  oil  thus  treated  and  allowed  to  cool  sets 
into  a  pale  straw-colored,  hard  mass  in  an  hour  or  two,  while 
cotton-seed  and  other  seed  oils  assume  a  deep  orange-red  color, 
and  do  not  set  like  olive  oil.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  delicacy 
of  this  test  depends  on  the  great  contrast  in  color  exhibited 
between  genuine  olive  and  seed  oils,  when  operated  on  as  de- 
scribed ;  so  that  an  admixture  of  5  per  cent  of  any  seed  oil  is 
readily  detected.  I  would  recommend  that  the  test  be  per- 
formed in  conjunction  with  the  test  of  a  sample  of  olive  oil 
known  to  be  pure.  The  heat  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
the  action  is  fairly  started,  and  the  mixture  should  be  kept 
well  stirred  until  the  action  is  over.  Should  too  much  heat 
be  applied,  the  action  becomes  violent  and  unmanageable, 
and  some  of  the  mixture  will  spurt  out  of  the  dish.  This  may 
be  prevented  by  placing  a  plate  or  other  flat  body  over  the 
dish.  The  results  obtained  are  never  as  good  when  the  action 
is  so  violent. " 

Other  tests  are  as  follows : 

Heat  a  small  quantity  of  the  oil  in  a  beaker  to  about  440° 
F. ;  if  lard  or  any  strong-smelling  oil  is  present,  it  will  be 
detected  by  its  odor. 

If  olive  oil  adulterated  with  poppy-seed  oil  is  boiled,  a  froth 
will  appear,  which  does  not  occur  with  pure  olive  oil. 

Bechi's  method,  in  Bulletin  No.  13,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  is  excellent. 

Olive  oil  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dark  room. 

ONIONS. 

Onions  are  the  bulbous  roots  of  the  onion  plant,  which 
belongs  to  the  order  Liliacece  or  lily  family. 

The  native  country  of  the  onion  is  not  positively  known, 
some  supposing  it  to  be  India  and  others  Egypt,  in  both  of 


116  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STOB 

which  it  has-been  cultivated  from  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
In  mild  climates  the  onion  has  a  larger  bulb  and  a  milder  and 

more  delicate  flavor,  and  is  more  extensively  used  for  food 
than  iu  cold  climates. 

Onions  contain  about  91  per  cent  of  water  and  (J  per  cent  of 
solids.  The  solids  consist  of  alarge  proportion  of  nitrogenous 
matter  and  uncrystallizable  sugar,  an  acid,  and  a  very  minute 
quantity  of  a  pungent,  volatile,  sulphurous  oil,  and  are  very 
nutritious.  The  oil  is  dissipated  by  boiling  the  onions  in 
water,  and  boiled  onions  are  therefore  much  milder  in  flavor 
than  raw  onions. 

As  a  condiment  or  an  article  of  food,  onions  agree  well  with 
some  stomachs  but  are  intolerable  to  others.  They  impart 
such  a  disagreeable  odor  to  the  breath  that  they  are  often 
rejected  even  though  they  are  liked.  Chewing  a  little  raw- 
parsley  is  said  to  remove  this  odor. 

Onions  used  as  food  stimulate  the  organs  of  secretion. 

Roasted  onions,  with  oil,  make  a  useful  emollient  for  sup- 
purating tumors  and  boils. 

There  are  three  principal  varieties  of  onions,  viz,  white, 
yellow,  and  red;  the  latter  are  the  best  " keepers, "retaining 
their  firmness  well  on  into  spring. 

Onions,  when  well  matured,  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  ground  for  some  time,  especially  if  the  weather  is  dry  ; 
this  hardens  them  and  makes  them  better  "keepers."  After 
being  pulled,  it  will  greatly  add  to  their  keeping  qualities 
if  they  are  left  on  the  ground  in  the  warm,  bright  sun  several 
days,  to  dry  out. 

To  keep  well,  onions  should  be  free  from  all  delects  and  he 
dry,  solid,  and  firm.  An  onion  pulled  before  it  is  thoroughly 
mature  will  have  more  or  less  moisture  on  the  outside  and  be 
soft  in  spots. 

Overgrown  onions  are  not  desirable,  generally  being  less 
firm  and  of  poorer  flavor  than  onions  of  normal  size. 

Onions  will  stand  a  greater  degree  of  cold  without  injury 
than  potatoes.  Frozen  onions,  if  thawed  out  slowly  in  a  dark 
place,  are  not  much  injured  for  immediate  use. 

Onions  sprout  quickly  when  the  weather  becomes  warm; 
hence  at  such  seasons  they  require  frequent  examinations  and 
overhauling  to  prevent  loss  from  this  cause. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES  117 

Onions  for  Army  use  should  be  firm,  and  the  outside  leaves 
crisp.  If  they  have  sprouted,  it  can  be  determined  by  cutting 
them  open.  Dealers  have  a  way  of  cutting  off  the  sprout 
and  twisting  the  outside  leaf  over  the  cut  so  as  to  conceal  it. 

For  immediate  use  the  white  onions  are  the  best,  as  they 
are  the  sweetest  and  mildest  in  flavor.  For  storage  the  yel- 
low and  red  varieties  are  altogether  preferable  to  the  white, 
on  account  of  their  very  much  better  keeping  qualities. 

In  most  sections  of  the  country  it  is  not  safe  to  buy  onions 
for  transportation  to  any  considerable  distance  between  April 
15  and  the  time  when  the  new  crop  is  available. 

Onions  are  shipped  in  crates,  ventilated  barrels,  or  sacks. 
They  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  sacks  after  receipt 
at  destination,  but  should  be  emptied  out  of  the  sacks  and 
spread  as  thinly  as  possible  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

The  best  method  of  keeping  onions  is  to  place  them,  by  hand, 
only  one  deep,  on  narrow-slatted  shelves,  arranged  one  above 
the  other,  at  convenient  distances  apart. 

Onions  are  of  an  easily  perishable  nature  and  require  the 
best  of  care  while  in  storage  to  prevent  great  loss. 

OYSTERS. 

The  oyster  is  an  animal  of  the  genus  Ostrea,  of  the  order 
Ostreidve.  It  is  a  mollusk  with  a  bivalve  shell  and  is  very 
widely  distributed,  its  species  being  found  in  nearly  all  of  the 
seas  except  those  of  the  polar  latitudes.  The  most  important 
species  are  the  Ostrea  virginiana,  of  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast  .of  the  United  States,  and  the  Ostrea  edulis  of  the 
European  waters.  The  American  species  is  larger  and  better- 
nave  >red  than  the  European. 

The  habitat  of  the  oyster  is  moderately  deep  water  along 
seacoasts,  generally  from  7  to  30  feet  deep,  with  a  firm, 
gravelly,  or  rocky  bottom.  They  are  most  frequently  found 
in  semi-fresh  waters,  as  bays  and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and 
necessarily  in  somewhat  sheltered  positions  therein,  for  where 
the  water  at  the  bottom  is  agitated  the  beds  would  become 
covered  with  sand  and  mud  and  the  oysters  would  thereby  be 
killed.  j^O  B  R  A"~ft^%, 

f  OF  THE  ^^ 

|  UNIVERSITY  I 


118  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

The  character  and  quality  of  oysters  depend  very  much  up<  >n 
the  locality  and  conditions  under  which  they  are  grown.  Sea 
water,  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  fresh  water  mixed 
therewith,  is  necessary  to  produce  well -developed,  fine-flavored 
oysters;  and  this  condition  exists  in  the  highest  degree  of 
perfection  in  the  waters  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  which  produce 
oysters  of  unexcelled  superiority  of  quality. 

In  this  country  oysters  are  grown  and  fattened  in  artificial 
beds.  " Plants,"  i.  e.,  small,  young  oysters,  are  gathered  din- 
ing the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  generally 
along  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas,  where  there  are  prolific* 
natural  beds,  in  which  the  oysters  are  too  small  and  too  salt 
for  food,  being  only  from  1  to  2  inches  long.  The  small 
oysters  are  taken  by  "dredging,"  and  immediately  carried  in 
boats  to  the  planting  grounds,  where  they  are  shoveled  over- 
board at  such  a  rate  as  to  cover  the  bottom,  and  are  allowed 
to  remain  there  from  six  to  twelve  months  to  grow  and  fatten. 
When  grown  and  fattened,  they  are  4  or  5  inches  long.  The 
best  and  most  largely  used  planting  ground  is  Chesapeake 
Bay,  which,  also,  has  the  advantage  of  being  in  close  pro* 
imity  to  the  great  natural  beds  or  breeding  grounds  on  the 
coast  of  the  Carolinas.  The  artificial  beds  or  planting  grounds 
of  Chesapeake  Bay  cover  an  area  of  over  3,000  square  miles. 
and  the  annual  yield  from  them  is  generally  more  than 
30,000, 000  bushels. 

In  France,  where  the  natural  beds  have  become  almost 
entirely  exhausted,  oyster  farming  differs  from  that  of  tin- 
United  States,  with  its  great,  prolific  natural  beds,  in  otic 
important  particular,  viz.,  in  breeding  oysters  in  artificial 
beds,  instead  of  stocking  them  with  "plants"  obtained  from 
natural  beds. 

The  implements  used  in  oyster  fishing  arc  the  dredge,  the 
tongs,  and  the  fork.  The  dredge  is  used  upon  the  natural 
beds,  which  are  in  deep  water.  It  consists  of  an  iron  net  Bel 
in  an  iron  frame,  furnished  with  teeth  so  arranged  as  to  tear 
the  oysters  from  their  beds  and  gather  them  into  the  net  as  it 
is  dragged  over  the  bottom  in  tow  of  a  small  vessel.  The 
dredge  weighs  about  L50  pounds  and  will  hold  about  :'»  bushels 
of  oysters.     When  filial  with  oysters,  the  dredge  is  hoisted 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  119 

on  board  the  vessel  by  means  of  a  windlass  arranged  for  the 
purpose.  The  tongs  consist  of  a  pair  of  iron  rakes,  joined 
together  near  their  heads.  The  rakes  have  long  handles,  and 
the  teeth  are  turned  toward  each  other  so  as  to  grip  the 
oysters.  They  are  used  in  shallow  water,  i.  e. ,  in  water  from 
2  to  8  feet  deep.  The  fisherman  uses  the  tongs  from  a  small 
boat,  over  the  side  of  which  he  leans  and  gathers  the  oysters 
from  the  beds  on  the  bottom.  The  fork  is  but  little  used,  and 
only  where  the  water  is  shallow  and  the  oysters  entangled  in 
sea  moss. 

Oysters,  after  being  gathered,  are  generally  carried  to  oyster 
houses,  where  large  numbers  of  hands  are  employed  in  prepar- 
ing them  for  market.  Fresh  oysters,  kept  properly  refrig- 
erated, are  shipped  in  the  shell;  also,  opened  or  "shucked,"  in 
pails ;  and,  also,  cold-packed,  in  hermetically  sealed  rectangu- 
lar-shaped flat  cans. 

"Drinking"  oysters  intended  for  use  as  fresh  oysters,  i.  e., 
putting  them  into  fresh  water  and  allowing  them  to  remain 
there  for  awhile,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  their  appear- 
ance, by  whitening  them  and  increasing  their  plumpness, 
impairs  or  destroys  their  flavor. 

Large  quantities  of  shucked  oysters  are  put  up,  sterilized 
by  heat,  in  hermetically  sealed  tin  cans.  Oysters  thus  put  up 
are  known  as  "Cove  oysters,"  and  are  the  kind  of  oysters 
furnished  for  Army  use  under  the  name  of  "Canned  oysters." 

Canning  Oysters. — In  this  country,  the  season  for  can- 
ning oysters  is  from  October  1  to  April  15.  The  oysters  are 
steamed  until  the  shell  is  thoroughly  opened.  After  being 
"shucked,"  i.  e.,  after  having  their  shells  removed,  they  are 
thoroughly  washed  in  clean  water,  assorted  according  to  sizes, 
weighed  into  cans,  and  the  interstices  filled  with  salt  water. 
The  cans  are  then  "exhausted"  for  ten  minutes  in  boiling 
water  (212°  F.),  the  caps  being  left  off  during  the  boiling; 
the  caps  are  then  soldered  on  and  the  ventholes  closed  up 
with  solder ;  they  are  then  processed  in  a  water  bath  at  240°  F. 
from  fourteen  to  twenty  minutes,  according  to  size  of  can  and 
quality  of  contents. 

There  are  two  grades  of  canned  oysters,  viz,  "Standards" 
and  "Selects."     The  Standards  are  put  up  in  1 -pound  and 


120  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

2-pound  cans — the  1 -pound  cans  containing  5  ounces  of  oys- 
ters and  the  2-pound  cans  containing  10  ounces.  This  grade 
is  composed  of  the  smaller  and  poorer  oysters.  The  Selects 
are,  also,  put  up  in  1-pound  and  2-pound  cans,  hut  the  1-pound 
cans  contain  6  ounces  of  oysters  and  the  2 -pound  cans  12 
ounces.  This  grade  is  composed  of  the  larger  and  fatter 
oysters.  Canned  oysters  are  packed  in  cases  containing  24 
cans  each. 

Before  packing  in  cases,  the  cans  are  carefully  inspected 
and  all  "leaks"  and  "swells"  thrown  away. 

Canned  oysters  should  never  be  exposed  to  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  They  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place,  and  to 
prevent  the  cans  from  rusting,  the  place  should,  also,  be  dry. 

After  oysters  have  been  canned  for  a  year  or  more,  dark, 
greenish-yellow  spots  appear  on  them,  which  increase  in  size 
with  the  lapse  of  time,  making  them  soft  and  rendering  them 
unpalatable  and  unwholesome. 

PEACHES,  CANNED. 

Peaches  are  the  fruit  of  the  Amygdalus  persica  or  peach 
tree,  which  belongs  to  the  order  Rosacea1  < »r  r< >se  family.  The 
name  of  the  species  is  derived  from  the  word  Persia,  although 
it  is  a  native  of  China  and  not  of  Persia. 

The  peach  grows  and  thrives  in  all  warm  or  temperate 
climates.  The  northern  limit  of  its  growth  in  the  United 
States  is  about  42°  north  latitude,  or  about  the  isothermal  line 
of  50    F. 

The  principal  peach-growing  sections  of  the  CJnited  States 
are  portions  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Illinois. 
California,  and  a  narrow  strip  of  western  Michigan,  along 
the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 

Peaches  for  canning  should  be  ripe  but  firm.  They  Bhould 
be  prepared  Cor  canning,  /.  e.,  peeled,  halved,  and  pitted,  by 
hand.  After  being  prepared  for  canning,  the  peaches  arc  put 
into  cans  and  then  snfficienl  simp  is  added  to  fill  the  inter 
slices.  The  cans  arc  exhausted  for  five  minutes,  at  212  I 
then  capped,  and  processed  for  fen  minutes  in  flic  open  bath, 
at  212    F.,  or  for  four  minutes  in  the  (dosed  bath,  at  '.MO    F. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  121 

For  making  the  sirup  refined  granulated  cane  sugar  should 
be  used,  in  the  proportion  of  about  6  pounds  to  the  gallon  of 
water.  The  density  of  the  sirup  should  not  be  less  than  10° 
Baume.  The  quality  of  canned  peaches  is  determined  by 
both  the  appearance  and  taste  of  the  fruit  and  the  sirup. 
The  fruit  should  have  its  original  form  without  being  hard, 
and,  in  a  large  degree,  its  original,  fresh  flavor,  and  the  sirup 
should  be  clear  and  of  proper  density  and  sweetness. 

Every  capable  packer  sorts  his  peaches  and  puts  up  several 
grades,  each  under  a  particular  brand  or  trade-mark — the 
best  grades  under  cannery  brands,  and  the  inferior  grades, 
generally,  under  bastard,  i.  e. ,  anonymous,  brands. 

Peaches  are  put  up  for  the  trade  in  2$  and  3  pound  cans, 
twenty-four  cans  to  the  case,  and  the  packages  and  subpack- 
ages  are  well  adapted  to  Army  use. 

PEARS,  CANNED. 

Pears  are  the  fruit  of  the  Pyrus  communis  or  pear  tree, 
which  belongs  to  the  order  Rosacece,  or  rose  family. 

The  pear  tree  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  is  successfully  cul- 
tivated in  all  temperate  climates  elsewhere.  It  has  been  cul- 
tivated from  the  earliest  historic  times,  but  all  of  the  varie- 
ties now  considered  valuable  are  of  quite  recent  origin,  as 
great  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  quality  of  its  fruit 
within  the  last  few  years.  Many  varieties  of  the  tree  are  as 
hardy  as  the  apple  tree,  while  some  others  are  quite  tender  and 
are  liable  to  be  killed  by  the  cold  of  our  Northern  States.  There 
are  more  than  1 ,  000  varieties  of  the  pear  in  cultivation.  Among 
those  bearing  the  best  fruit  are  the  Bartlett,  Doyenne  d'Ete, 
Flemish  Beauty,  Belle  Lucrative,  Seckel,  Beurre  d'Anjou, 
Duchesse  d'Angouleme,  Jarganelle,  Lawrence,  and  Winter 
Nelis. 

Most  varieties  of  pears  are  improved  in  quality  by  being 
picked  from  the  trees  some  days  before  ripening  and  placed 
in  a  cool,  dark  place  to  ripen.  Some  varieties  are  almost  worth- 
less if  they  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees  until  ripe. 

Pears  are  sold  in  the  market  either  fresh  or  put  up  in  her- 
metically sealed  tin  cans.  They  are  furnished  for  the  use  of 
the  Army  in  the  latter  form  only. 


122  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

The  fiber  of  the  pear  is  so  delicate  that,  in  canning,  great 
care  has  to  be  exercised  in  its  manipulation  to  prevent  disin- 
tegrating it;  and  this  care  should  begin  with  the  gathering 
of  the  pears  from  the  trees.  The  pears  are  hand-picked  from 
the  trees  when  fully  grown  but  before  they  are  ripe,  and  they 
are  then  put  into  bins  or  boxes  and  left  there  until  they  are 
ripe,  which  is  indicated  by  the  peculiar  color  which  charac- 
terizes pears  ripened  on  the  tree.  If  pears  are  allowed  to  ripen 
on  the  tree  they  are  liable  to  fall  to  the  ground  and  get  dam- 
aged by  bruising.  Pears  ripened  on  the  tree  are  apt  to  be 
watery,  to  have  less  flavor,  and  to  disintegrate  in  processing. 

Pears  for  canning  should  be  carefully  selected,  and  should 
be  peeled  and  halved  by  hand.  Sufficient  refined  sugar  is  put 
into  the  cans  to  furnish  a  rich  sirup.  The  cans  are  exhausted 
in  an  open  bath  of  boiling  water  for  five  minutes;  they  are 
then  sealed  and  processed  in  an  (men  bath  of  boiling  water  for 
twelve  minutes,  or  in  a  closed  bath,  at  240°  F.,  for  five  minutes. 

Upon  opening  a  can  of  the  best  quality  of  pears  it  will  show 
an  abundance  of  large  fruit  of  a  very  light  yelli  >w,  almost  white 
color,  holding  its  form,  and  a  clear,  fruity  sirup. 

Pears  are  put  up  for  the  trade  in  2k  and  3  pound  cans, 
twenty-four  to  the  case,  which  are  suitable  for  Army  use, 

PEAS. 

Peas  are  the  seeds  of  the  Pisum  sativum  or  pea  plant,  which 

belongs  to  the  order  Leguminosce  or  pulse  family. 

The  pea  plant  is  an  annual,  climbing  herb,  with  paripinnate 
leaves,  papilionaceous  flowers,  and  fruit  consisting  of  pods  of 
the  kind  called  legumes,  containing  globular  seeds. 

The  native  country  of  the  pea  is  unknown,  but  it  is  largely 
cultivated  in  this  country  and  also  in  Europe. 

Peas   are    used    for    food   in    both    the  green   and    dry  states. 

They  are  furnished  for  the  use  of  the  Army  in  the  form  of 
"canned  green  peas "  and  "split  peas*" 

In  this  country  the  best  varieties  of  the  pea  for  canning  are 
the  "Early  June"  and  "Marrowfat." 

Mode  of  Canning  Green  Peas.  -The  peas,  while  y el  green 
but  fully  developed,  are  picked  from  the  Tinea  by  hand  and 
carried  to  the  cannery   where   they  are   shelled   and  graded 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  123 

according  to  size,  by  machinery,  into  the  grades  known, 
respectively,  as  "Standard,"  "Sifted,"  and  "Extra  sifted." 
The  grading  is  done  by  means  of  sieves  or  screens  with  meshes 
of  different  sizes.  After  being  graded,  the  peas  are  bleached 
by  putting  them  in  a  perforated  kettle  and  submerging  them 
in  a  vat  of  hot  water,  and  then  rinsing  them  off  in  clear,  cold 
water.  They  are  then  put  into  cans  and  the  interstices  filled 
with  very  weak  brine,  to  which  a  little  sugar  has  been  added. 
The  filled  cans  are  then  capped  and  hermetically  sealed.  They 
are  then  subjected  to  a  heat  of  212°  F.,  in  an  open  bath,  for 
ten  minutes..  They  are  then  vented  by  puncturing  the  caps. 
This  part  of  the  process  is  called  "exhausting."  The  vent- 
holes  are  immediately  soldered  up  and  the  cans  are  subjected 
to  a  heat  of  240°  F.,  in  a  closed  bath,  for  from  twenty  to 
thity-five  minutes,  according  to  the  size  of  the  peas. 

An  imitation  of  canned  green  peas,  called  "Soaks,"  is  made 
of  dried  peas  by  soaking  them  in  water  for  twenty-four  hours 
to  soften  them,  and  then  canning  them — processing  them  for 
thirty-five  minutes  in  a  closed  bath  at  a  temperature  of  235°  F. 
Such  so-called  canned  green  peas  have  a  yellow  color,  are 
tough,  and  lack  the  flavor  of  genuine  canned  green  peas. 

In  France,  whence  come  the  finest  canned  green  peas,  called 
"  Petits  Pois,"  the  mode  of  canning  is  similar  to  that  in  vogue 
in  this  country.  There  the  green  peas  are  picked  in  the 
months  of  April  and  May,  and  are  shelled  and  graded  by 
machinery.  The  French  packers  make  six  grades,  according 
to  size,  as  follows,  viz:  "Surextra  Fins,"  "Extra  Fins," 
"Fins,"  "Moyennes,"  "Gros,"  and  "GrosGros,"  "Surextra 
Fins  "  being  the  smallest  size  and  considered  the  best  quality, 
and  "Gros  Gros"  the  largest  size  and  poorest  quality. 

The  grade  "Extra  Fins  "  is  the  most  suitable  for  Army  use. 

American  canned  green  peas  are  put  up  in  2 -pound  cans, 
twenty-four  to  the  case ;  and  French  canned  green  peas,  in 
1  -pound  cans,  100  to  the  case. 

Good  canned  green  peas  are  tender,  but  have  sufficient  con- 
sistency to  hold  well  their  natural  form ;  are  of  a  uniform 
light-green  color,  and  have  a  good  flavor. 

Canned  green  peas  are  sometimes  artificially  colored,  and 
all  bids  based  upon  samples  of  this  kind  should  be  rejected. 


124  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

Split  Peas  are  prepared  from  common  field  peas.  They 
are  first  steamed  to  loosen  their  skins,  then  kiln-dried,  and 
afterwards  run  through  a  fanning  mill  to  drive  off  the  skins. 
When  the  skins  are  thus  removed  the  peas  of  themselves 

split  into  halves,  and  are  therefore  called  "split  peas."' 

Good  split  peas  should  be  free  from  hulls  or  skins  and  of  a 

bright  orange  color,  which  is  their  natural  color.     If  they  arc 

brown  it  indicates  that  they  were  scorched  in  the  kiln-drying 

process. 

The  commercial  packages  of  split  peas  are  barrels  contain 

ing  210  pounds,  net,  and  half  barrels  containing  100  pounds, 

net. 

PEPPER. 

The  ordinary  black  and  white  peppers  of  commerce  are  both 
prepared  from  the  fruit  of  the  Piper  nigrum,  a  perennial, 
climbing  shrub  which  grows  spontaneously  on  the  Malabar 
Coast,  and  the  culture  of  which  has  been  extended  to  Siain, 
Hindostan,  Indo-China,  the  islands  of  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Java, 
Borneo,  and  to  some  extent  to  Guiana,  in  South  America. 
The  greatest  production  is  in  the  Island  of  Sumatra.  The 
principal  ports  of  exportation  are  Singapore  and  Penang. 
The  port  of  exportation  of  Malabar  pepper  is  Tellichery. 

There   are   at  least  five  commercial  varieties   of  pepper, 
named  after  the  ports  of  exportation  or  the  localities  where 
grown,  as  follows,  viz,   Malabar,   Penang,  Sumatra,  and   Tel 
lichery. 

The  differences  which  several  varieties  of  pepper  present  to 
the  eye  are  evident  enough  when  the  several  samples  are  at 
hand  for  comparison,  but  it  takes  an  expert  to  identity  a  soli 
tary  sample;    and  if  several   kinds  are  mixed    together  it    is 

doubtful  if  an  expert  could  separate  the  peppercorns  again. 
identifying  each  kind  correctly.  The  best  method  of  judging 
of  the  quality  of  peppercorns  is  that  in  use  in  the  trade,  viz. 

by  weight. 

Our  imports  of  peppercorns  are  principally  through  Eng 

land,  and  not  direct;  and  in  that  country  the  following  mix 
ture  is  in  vogue:  Malabar  for  weight,  Penang  for  strength, 
and  Sumatra  for  color. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  '125 

All  the  ground  peppers  of  commerce  are  mixtures  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  pepper ;  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  pure  ground 
Malabar  pepper  or  a  pure  ground  Penang  pepper. 

To  Prepare  Black  Pepper. — The  berries  which  are  de- 
signed for  making  black  pepper  are  picked  after  they  have 
attained  a  good  size,  but  while  they  are  still  green.  They 
are  thrown  upon  a  latticework  of  bamboo,  which  is  placed 
over  a  furnace,  the  heat  and  smoke  from  which  pass  through 
the  peppers  and  both  dry  and  color  them.  The  berries  are 
next  detached  from  the  stems  and  sifted,  and  then  packed  in 
bags  for  shipment;  and  the  dried  berries  in  this  form  are  the 
black  peppercorns  of  commerce. 

To  Prepare  White  Pepper. — The  berries  are  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  vines  until  they  are  ripe.  Immediately  after 
picking,  they  are  thrown  into  shallow  trenches  or  ditches 
containing  water,  where  they  are  allowed  to  soak  for  ten  or 
twelve  days.  By  that  time  the  puty  is  much  decayed  and  the 
skin  and  pulp  are  readily  loosened  and  separated  from  the 
seeds  or  kernels.  When  dried,  the  kernels  are  of  a  greenish 
white  color,  but  they  are  frequently  given  another  bleaching 
by  chlorine,  which  improves  their  appearance,  but  at  the 
expense  of  the  quality ;  and  the  dried  kernels,  when  thus  pre- 
pared, are  the  white  pepper  of  commerce. 

The  process  by  which  the  white  pepper  is  prepared  is  much 
more  tedious  and  expensive  than  that  of  preparing  black 
pepper.  White  pepper  is  less  pungent  than  black,  as  the 
essential  constituents  of  the  spice  are  more  abundant  in  other 
parts  of  the  fruit  than  the  seed,  but  the  flavor  is  said  to  be 
finer.  White  pepper  is  chiefly  prepared  in  the  island  of  Rhio, 
but  the  finest  comes  from  Tellichery. 

Pepper  is  either  ground  by  the  millstone  process  or  with  an 
apparatus  similar  to  a  coffee  mill.  The  latter  mode  is  far 
preferable  to  the  former,  as  the  friction  of  the  stones  develops 
considerable  heat,  which  dissipates  some  of  the  aromatic 
principles  of  the  pepper.  Pepper  thus  damaged  by  heat  gen- 
erated in  grinding  is  technically  called  "burnt." 

Advertisements  inviting  proposals  for  ground  pepper  for 
Army  use  should  require  the  pepper  in  the  berry  to  be  resif  ted 
before  grinding. 


126  HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE    STOBJ 

Ground  pepper  is  apt  to  be  adulterated  and  great  care 
should  he  exercised  in  its  purclne 

Ground  black  pepper  is  the  only  form  of  the  fruit  of  the 
plant  of  the  genus  Piper  that  is  furnished  for  the  use  of  the 
Army.     It  is  packed  in  ^-pound  tins,  forty-eight  to  the  < 
and  ^-pound  tins,  twenty-four  to  the  case. 

PEPPER,   RED. 

Two  kinds  of  so-called  red  pepper  are  furnished  for  fche  use 
of  the  Army,  viz,  Cayenne  and  Spanish,  the  latter  being 
officially  designated  as  "  Chile  Colorado,"  which  is  its  Spanish 
name. 

They  are  prepared  from  the  fruit  of  the  Capsicum,  and  not 
from  the  fruit  of  the  Piper  or  pepper  genus  of  plants. 

Capsicum,  of  which  there  are  several  species,. belongs  to  the 
order  Solanacece,  which  also  includes  the  nightshade,  the 
potato,  the  tomato,  and  the  tobacco  plants. 

Cayenne  red  pepper  is  prepared  from  the  pods  of  two  large 
pod  species  of  Capsicum,  viz,  C.  frutescens  and  C.  annuum, 
but  chiefly  from  those  of  the  latter.  The  supply  <  >f  C.  ann  u  >i  m 
comes  from  Zanzibar  and  Natal. 

Cayenne  red  pepper,  for  Army  use,  is  required  to  be  put  up 
in  2-ounce  bottles. 

Spanish  red  pepper,  or  Chile  Colorado,  is  prepared  from  the 
pods  of  a  small-pod  species  of  the  capsicum,  viz.,  C.  fasti 
giatum,  which  grows  wild  in  South  India,  and  is  cultivated 
in  tropical  Africa  and  tropical  America.  The  supply  for  the 
use  of  the  Army  is  procured  in  New  Mexico. 

The  outer  skin  of  the  ripe  pods  of  the  Chile  Colorado,  when 
dried  in  the  sun,  is  of  a  rich,  dark-red  color,  and  hasa  smooth, 
oily  appearance.  The  pods  contain  numerous  small,  flat  seeds 
Of  much  lighter  color  than  the  skin.  The  pods  are  attached 
to  the  stalk  by  a  thin,  line  stent.  The  stem  and  seeds  are  but 
slightly  pungent  as  compared  with  the  skin,  and  should  n«>t 
he  used   in    preparing  the   manufactured   article;    and.    if   so 

used,  are  1«>  be  considered  as  adulterants.     It  is  alleged  by 

some  that,  because  of  the  oily  nature  of  the  skins,  it   is   Qi 
sary  t<>  mix  corn  meal  with  them  in  order  t<>  grind  them,  but 
experience  has  disproved  this,  and  when  corn  meal  is  soused 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  127 

it  is,  also,  to  be  considered  as  an  adulterant.  As  much  of  the 
Chile  Colorado  is  ground  by  hand  by  the  growers,  it  is  difficult 
to  obtain  it  free  from  ground  seeds. 

For  Army  use,  Chile  Colorado  is  required  to  be  put  up  in 
1-pound  tin  cans. 

PIGS'  FEET. 

Pigs'  feet  are  first  cleaned  and  put  into  brine  of  mild  strength, 
about  65°  Baume.  When  properly  cured  they  are  put  into 
wooden  vats  and  cooked  with  steam ;  they  are  then  taken  out, 
split,  and  trimmed.  All  very  hard  or  very  tough  feet  are 
thrown  out.  They  are  then  put  into  barrels,  kegs,  or  kits,  as 
may  be  desirable,  and  covered  with  vinegar  of  50°  Baume  in 
strength. 

All  wooden  receptacles  should  be  thoroughly  silicated  on 
the  inside  before  being  used,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
the  vinegar  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  wood.  The 
vinegar  will,  however,  in  the  course  of  time,  more  or  less 
affect  the  wood  and  become  what  is  termed  "wood-tainted," 
and,  consequently,  pigs'  feet  should  not  be  kept  on  hand  any 
great  length  of  time.  The  receptacles  should  be  frequently 
examined  to  see  that  the  vinegar  has  not  leaked  out,  and, 
after  being  opened,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  pigs' 
feet  covered  with  vinegar. 

Pigs'  feet  are  also  put  up  in  glass  jars.  When  they  are  put 
up  in  this  style,  the  large  bones  are  taken  out  and  the  vinegar 
jellied,  so  that  the  contents  of  the  jars  are  nearly  one  solid 
mass.  Spices  and  other  flavoring  materials  are  used  in  vary- 
ing proportions,  according  to  the  recipes  of  different  manu- 
facturers. 

Vinegar-pickled  meats  should  not  be  put  up  in  tin  cans,  as  the 
acetic  acid  would  corrode  the  tin. 

Pigs'  feet  in  the  fresh  state,  like  any  other  fresh  meat,  may 
be  put  up  in  tin  cans ;  but  when  put  up  in  this  style  the  bones 
should  first  be  removed. 

For  Army  use,  pigs'  feet  are  furnished  fresh,  in  2-pound 
cans,  and  pickled,  in  15-pound  kits. 

PINEAPPLES,  CANNED. 

Canned  pineapples  are  prepared  from  the  fruit  of  the  Anan- 
assa  sativa  or  pineapple  plant,  a  perennial  herb  which  grows 


128  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

in  tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries,  and  is  cultivated 
mainly  for  the  sake  of  its  large,  juicy,  aromatic,  multiple 
fruit.  The  fruit  has  a  leafy  shoot  on  its  apex,  which  may  he 
used  as  a  "  cutting  "  for  the  purpose  of  propagation.  Seeds 
are  very  rarely  developed.  The  fiber  of  the  leaves  is  used  for 
making  cloth.  The  pineapple  plant  is  so  called  from  the 
resemblance  of  its  fruit,  in  shape  and  external  appearanc 
the  cones  of  the  pine  tree. 

The  pineapples  consumed  in  the  United  States  come  mostly 
from  Singapore,  in  Asia,  Nassau,  in  the  Bahama  Islands,  and 
the  State  of  Florida.  They  are  extensively  canned  in  all  of 
these  places,  and  also  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  Md. 

Pineapples  are  too  soft,  when  ripe,  to  stand  transportation, 
and,  for  shipping,  are,  therefore,  always  picked  while  green. 

Canned  pineapples  are  better  the  second  or  third  year  than 
the  first,  because  it  takes  time  for  the  sirup  to  thoroughly 
permeate  the  fruit ;  indeed,  many  acid  fruits  which  when  first- 
packed  are  a  little  hard,  become  mellowed  with  time  and  the 
absorption  of  the  sirup. 

Pineapxdes  are  canned  in  the  whole  and  also  in  the  sliced 
form.  Preparatory  to  canning  them,  they  should  be  peeled 
and  the  eyes  and  the  woody  core  removed.  The  cans  are  filled 
with  the  prepared  fruit,  and  the  interstices  are  then  filled 
with  a  clear,  heavy  sirup  made  of  water  and  refined  cane 
sugar.  The  cans  thus  filled  with  fruit  and  sirup  are  capped, 
hermetically  sealed,  and  subjected  to  a  Tieat  of  212  F.  in  an 
open  bath.  They  are  then  vented  by  puncturing  the  caps. 
This  part  of  the  process  is  called  ''exhausting."  The  vent 
holes  are  immediately  soldered  up  and  the  cans  are  subjected 
to  a  heat  of  212°  F.,  in  an  open  bath,  for  twenty  minutes;  or, 
to  a  heat  of  240    F.,  in  a  closed  bath,  for  eight  minutes. 

Canned  pineapples  of  the  best  quality  have  little  woody 
fiber  and  are  of  a  light  yellow  color,  with  a,  decided  flavor  of 
the  fresh  fruit;  the  sirup  is  clear,  heavy,  and  fruity, 

Canned  pineapples  are  put  up  for  the  trade  in  cans  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  from  1  pound  to  8-pound,  and  generally  packed 
in  cases  containing  twenty-four  cans  each. 

For  Army  use.  canned  pineapples  are  purchased  only  in  2 
pound  cans,  in  cases  containing  twenty-four  cans  each. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  129 

PIPES,  BRIER-WOOD. 

Brier- wood  pipes  are  the  only  kind  of  pipes  kept  by  the 
Subsistence  Department,  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted  men 
of  the  Army. 

They  are  kept  in  four  sizes,  viz,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4.  Nos. 
1  and  2  have  short,  detached  stems,  with  curved  mouthpieces. 
The  stems  and  mouthpieces  are  in  one  piece,  and  are  made 
of  vulcanized  India  rubber.  No.  3  has  a  short,  attached  stem, 
with  a  curved  mouthpiece.  The  stem  and  mouthpiece  are 
in  one  piece  and  are  made  of  vulcanized  India  rubber.  No.  4 
has  a  short  stem  with  a  straight  mouthpiece.  The  bowl  and 
stem  are  in  one  piece,  and  the  mouthpiece  is  made  of  vulcan- 
ized India  rubber. 

Brier-wood  pipes  are  made  in  three  grades,  viz,  "Firsts," 
1  ■  Seconds, "  and  ' '  Thirds. "  The  firsts,  which  is  the  only  grade 
purchased  by  the  Subsistence  Department,  are  made  of  the 
best  quality  of  wood  and  other  materials,  and  are  finely  fin- 
ished and  free  from  defects.  The  seconds  and  thirds  are 
defective  in  the  quality  of  the  wood  or  other  materials  from 
which  they  are  made,  or  in  the  workmanship,  or  in  both  of 
these  particulars. 

In  inspecting  brier-wood  pipes  to  be  delivered  under  con- 
tracts with  the  Subsistence  Department,  care  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  they  have  no  defects,  such  as  small  holes  or  cracks 
in  the  wood,  which  have  been  concealed  by  plugging  or  filling, 
and  that  the  boring  is  smooth  and  accurate. 

Brier  wood  is  the  root  or  burl  of  the  brier,  and  is  distinguished 
from  apple  wood  and  other  similar  woods  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pipes  by  the  peculiarity  of  its  grain,  which  is 
curled  and  knotty,  while  in  the  others  the  grain  is  straight. 
All  brier-wood  |)ipes  show  the  peculiar  grain  of  the  burl  very 
plainly,  but  they  differ  considerably  from  each  other  in  depth 
of  color,  depending  on  the  part  of  the  root  from  which  they 
are  made.  Those  made  from  the  lower  part  of  the  root  have 
a  darker  or  deeper  color  than  those  made  from  the  upper  part. 
There  is  not,  however,  any  difference  in  price  on  account  of 
variation  in  depth  of  color. 


L30  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STOR1 

They  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  twelve  pipes  each. 
and  four  of  these  cartons  arc  packed  in  a  wooden  box  or 
case. 

PIPESTEMS. 

Weichsel  pipestems,  4  inches  long,  with  curved,  vulcanized 
rubber  mouthpieces,  are  the  only  hind  of  pipestems  kept  by 
the  Subsistence  Department,  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted 
men  of  the  Army. 

Weichsel  grows  in  Austria  and  Germany,  and  the  weichsel 
pipestems  are  all  made  in  those  countries.  They  are  all  made 
in  two  grades,  based  on  the  quality  and  materials  used  and 
the  quality  of  the  workmanship  in  their  manufacture,  viz, 
"Firsts"  and  "Seconds."'  The  firsts,  which  alone  are  pur- 
chased by  the  Subsistence  Department,  are  made  up  of  the 
best  materials,  and  are  faultless  in  workmanship.  The 
onds  are  deficient  in  the  materials  used  in  their  manufacture, 
or  in  workmanship,  or  in  both.  They  are.  also,  graded  aco  >rd 
ing  to  thickness  of  stem,  as  thin,  medium,  and  thick,  and  are 
priced  accordingly. 

Weichsel  pipestems  are  put  up  in  cartons  containing  twelve 

pipestems  each.     The  mouthpieces   are  detached  to  prevent 

.  breakage,  and  are  put  up  in  the  cartons  with  the  pipestems  to 

which  they  belong.     Four  of  these  cartons  are  packed  in  a 

wooden  box  or  case. 

PORK. 

Pork  is  the  flesh  of  the  hog. 

The  hog  (Sus  scrofa)  is  a  small-sized  pachyderm,  whose 

most  distinctive  physical   features  are  a,  bristly  skin    and   a 

nose  ending  in  a  flattened,  cartilaginous  disk  or  earth  excavator; 

and  whose  most  distinct  physiological  characteristic  is  an 
extraordinary  power  of  secreting  fat   when  well  fed. 

The  hog  is  a  gluttonous  animal,  and.  with  the  exception  of 
the  duck  and  the  chicken,   is  the  most    indiscriminate  in  its 

diet  of  all  the  domesticated  food  animals.  The  nature  of  the 
food  upon  which  ahog  subsists  strongly  influences  the  quality 

of  its  flesh.  It  has  been  found  that  when  a  hog  has  the  free 
range  of  virgin  forests,  where  i1  finds  its  natural  foods,  such 
as  acorns,  beechnuts,  sweet  chestnuts,  root-,     tc.,  its  flesh 


HANDBOOK   OP  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  131 

acquires  a  peculiar  flavor  that  is  highly  prized;  and  it  is  for 
1li is  reason  that  the  flesh  of  the  Virginia  hogs,  which  have 
the  range  of  such  forests,  has  obtained  a  celebrity  for  excel- 
lence of  quality  equal  to  that  of  the  Westphalia  hogs,  which 
feed  on  similar  foods. 

Milk  alone  will  fatten  hogs,  and,  when  thus  fattened,  their 
flesh  is  of  the  most  delicate  flavor.  The  flesh  of  grain -fed  hogs 
is  next  in  delicacy  of  flavor  to  the  flesh  of  milk-fed  hogs. 
The  flesh  of  hogs  fed  on  peas  is  good,  but  that  of  hogs  fed  on 
beans  is  hard  and  bad-flavored.  The  flesh  of  hogs  fed  on 
potatoes  is  insipid,  and  that  of  hogs  fed  on  offal,  swill,  or  on 
slops  from  kitchens,  breweries,  etc.,  is  too  soft  and  has  a 
strong,  unpleasant  flavor  and  a  similar  odor. 

To  Inspect  Fresh  Pork. — Take  a  thin  slice  of  the  lean 
meat  between  the  forefinger  and  the  thumb,  and  give  it  a 
smart  squeeze ;  if  the  meat  yields  readily  to  the  pressure,  it 
is  of  good  quality,  and  if  it  does  not  so  yield,  it  is  not  of  good 
quality.  The  meat  should  be  of  a  pale-red,  and  not  of  a  dark- 
red,  color,  and  the  rind  should  be  thin  and  of  a  delicate  tex- 
ture. Freshness  is  indicated  by  transparency  and  by  freedom 
from  green  tint  and  unpleasant  odor. 

Measly  Pork. — Measly  pork  is  the  flesh  of  slaughtered  dis- 
eased hogs,  and  is  recognized  by  the  enlarged  glands  in  the  fat 
portion,  called  "kernels,"  and  by  the  little  specks  of  matter 
yielded  by  the  lean  portion  upon  pressure.  Measly  pork  is 
unwholesome  and  unfit  for  use  as  food. 

Corn-fed  pork  is  the  best  quality  of  pork  found  in  the  gen- 
eral market.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  mast,  slop,  or  swill 
fed  pork  by  its  pearly  appearance,  and  by  its  retaining  the 
dent  of  the  thumb  or  finger  on  pressure ;  mast-fed  pork  has  a 
blue  tinge,  is  spongy,  and  gives  back  "  squirms  "  on  pressure. 

When  slaughtered  and  dressed,  hogs  six  weeks  old  are  called 
"roasting  pigs,"  and  those  over  six  weeks  but  under  one  year 
( >ld,  ' '  shoats, "  and  their  meat,  ' '  shoat  pork. "  The  meat  of  the 
full-grown  hog  is,  when  it  is  fresh,  called  "pork,"  and  after 
it  is  cured  is  called  ' '  salt  pork  "  or  "  pickled  pork, "  or  "  bacon, " 
according  to  the  mode  of  curing. 

The  principal  pork-packing  points  in  this  country  are  the 
cities  of  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  and  Omaha.     The  methods  of 


132  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

packing  pork  pursued  in  these  places  are  very  similar.  The 
buildings  are  of  large  size  and  Btrongly  constructed.     Iu  those 

of  three  stories  the  lower  floor  is  used  for  curing  and  storing 
the  material,  the  second  floor  for  packing,  and  the  third  for 

cooling  and  cutting  up  the  hog*-  The  roof  is  constructed  flat, 
very  heavy,  and  tight.  Some  roofs  are  divided  off  into  yards 
or  pens  that  will  hold  as  many  as  four  thousand  head.  The 
animals  are  driven  up  an  inclined  plane  to  the  pens  on  the  roof, 
where  they  are  held  until  the  time  comes  for  killing  them. 
They  are  usually  hilled  the  day  following  their  arrival  at  the 
packinghouse,  as  it  has  been  found  that,  if  kept  long  in  the 
pens,  they  crowd  together,  and  that  numbers  are  smothered 
or  otherwise  killed  by  excessive  crowding. 

When  all  is  ready  for  the  killing  the  hogs  are  driven,  about 
twenty  at  a  time,  into  a  small  pen  at  the  hog  entrance  to  the 
building,  and  are  slaughtered  in  succession,  as  follows,  viz: 

A  man,  with  a  grappling  iron,  catches  a  hog  by  one  of  its  hind 
legs  ;  another  man,  by  means  of  a  lever,  raises  it  from  the  floor ; 
and  a  third  man,  with  a  butcher  knife,  "sticks  "  it.  It  is  then 
slid  slowly  along  toward  the  scalding  vat  by  means  of  an 
overhead-railway  track,  the  blood  flowing  into  a  gutter  and 
being  conducted  by  spouts  to  large  tanks  to  be  used  for  mak- 
ing fertilizer  and  for  other  purposes.  After  having  bled  suf- 
ficiently, the  hogs  are  slid  down  an  incline  plane  directly  into 
one  end  of  the  scalding  vat.  The  scalding  vat  is  made  of  wood 
and  is  about  (Meet  wide,  80  feet  long,  and  3  feet  deep.  The 
water  in  Hie  scalding  vat  is  heated  and  kepi  at  a  regular  tem 
perature  by  means  of  steam  pipes.  The  hogs  in  the  scalding 
vat  are  floated  along  and  turned  by  men  standing  on  opp 
sides  until  they  reach  t  lie  other  end,  when  they  are  taken  out 
in  succession  by  a,  simple  contrivance  operated  by  a  single 
and  deposited  upon  the  end  of  a  Long,  inclined  table.  Two  men 
stand  ready  and  take  from  the  back  of  each  hog.  in  an  instant. 
all  the  bristles  that  are   suitable    for  the  brushmaker  and  the 

shoemaker,  depositing  them  in  boxes  and  barrels,  for  removal. 
Another  pair  of  men,  standing  on  opposite  sides  of  the  table, 
divest  another  pari  of  the  hog  of  its  hair,  and  s<>  on,  through 

the  hands  of  some  eight    or  ten  pairs  of  men.  who  have  each 

a  different  part  to  perform  in  tli"  cleansing  of  the  hog.  until 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  133 

it  reaches  the  last  pair,  who  put  in  the  gambrel  stick  and  swing 
it  to  a  traveler  on  the  track  of  an  overhead  railway,  where  it 
receives  a  shower  bath  of  clean,  cold  water  and  a  final  scrape 
with  knives.  It  then  passes  along,  on  the  track  of  the  over- 
head railway,  to  a  man  who  opens  it  and  removes  the  large 
intestines,  heart,  lights,  etc. ;  the  hog  then  receives  a  thorough 
drenching  wTith  water  and  passes  to  another  man,  who  splits 
it  down  the  backbone.  At  this  stage  a  man  loosens  up  the 
leaf  fat,  ready  to  be  removed  wdien  the  hog  is  cooled,  which, 
together  with  the  splitting  of  it  down  the  backbone,  hastens 
the  cooling.  It  is  then  run  by  means  of  overhead  railways 
to  another  room  to  cool.  The  hogs  are  allowed  to  hang  in  the 
cooling  room  for  about  two  days  before  being  cut  up.  The 
fat  on  the  small  intestines  is  removed,  and,  after  being  washed, 
it  is  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  lard-rendering  tank. 

After  cooling,  the  dressed  hogs  are  ready  to  be  cut  up  and 
are  carried  from  the  cooling  room  to  the  cutting  room,  each 
being  weighed  as  it  is  brought  up,  and  a  record  being  made 
of  its  weight.  A  hog  having  been  placed  on  the  cutting  block, 
one  stroke  of  a  large  cleaver  severs  the  head,  another  severs 
the  saddle  or  hind  parts  containing  the  hams,  another  cuts  it 
open  along  the  back,  and  then  one  is  given  for  each  leg.  The 
leaf  fat,  being  already  loosened,  js  now  stripped  from  the.  car- 
cass. The  remainder  of  the  hog  is  then  cut  up  for  making 
the  various  kinds  of  meat  for  which  it  is  most  suitable.  These 
operations  are  continuous,  and  for  each  hog  take  but  a  few 
moments  of  time. 

Barreled  pork  is  designated,  according  to  the  cuts  of  which 
it  consists,  as  follows,  viz,  mess  pork,  prime  mess  pork,  extra- 
prime  pork,  light  mess  pork,  extra-shoulder  pork,  extra-clear 
pork,  clear  pork,  clear-back  mess  pork,  and  rumps. 

Pork  is  also  made  into  sausages.  To  make  sausages,  a 
mixture  of  about  one-third  fat,  and  two-thirds  lean,  meat,  is 
chopped  or  ground  in  a  sausage  mill,  and  then  seasoned  with 
black  pepper,  powdered  and  sifted  sage,  cloves,  mace,  and  nut- 
meg, to  suit  the  taste.  Factory-made  sausages  are  not  nearly 
as  good  as  homemade. 

The  kinds  of  pork  generally  used  in  the  Army  are  mess, 
light  mess,  and  prime  mess. 


134  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

Mess  pork  is  made  from  the  sides  of  well-fatted  hogs, 
numbering  not  over  sixteen  pieces  to  the  barrel. 

Prime  mess  pork  is  made  from  the  shoulders  and  sides  of 
nice,  smooth,  fat  hogs,  weighing  from  100  to  175  pounds,  net, 
regularly  cut  into  square  pieces  of  as  near  4  pounds  each  as 
possible,  in  the  proportion  of  twenty  pieces  of  shoulder  and 
thirty  pieces  of  side  cuts. 

Light  mess  pork  is  made  from  the  sides  of  reasonably  well- 
fatted  hogs,  and  as  many  as  twenty-two  pieces  of  uniform 
size  may  be  packed  in  a  barrel. 

To  make  mess  pork  or  light  mess  pork,  the  hog  is  first  split 
through  the  backbone,  or  if  split  on  the  side,  an  equal  propor- 
tion of  hard  and  soft  sides,  as  they  are  termed,  properly 
flanked  and  not  back-strapped,  must  be  packed  in  each  barrel. 

If  pork  is  packed  between  the  first  day  of  October  and  the 
last  day  of  February,  inclusive,  190  pounds  of  green,  i.  c. 
uncured,  meat,  including  the  regular  number  of  flank  and 
shoulder  cuts,  placed  in  four  layers,  on  edge,  without  exces- 
sive crowding  or  bruising,  must  be  packed  in  each  barrel, 
with  not  less  than  40  pounds  of  coarse  salt  (Turk's  Island  or 
its  equivalent),  and  the  interstices  filled  with  brine  of  full 
strength;  or  with  45  pounds  of  coarse1  salt,  and,  in  addition 
thereto,  15  pounds  of  ordinary  salt,  and  the  interstices  rilled 
with  cold  water.  If  i^ork  is  packed  in  March,  198  pounds  of 
green  meat  must  be  packed  in  each  barrel. 

At  some  packing  houses,  prior  to  cutting  up  the  pork  and 
packing  it  into  barrels,  the  sides  are  cut  into  strips  longitudi- 
nally, and  packed  in  large  casks  or  vats  tilled  with  brine, 
and  left  for  from  eight  to  ten  days  to  extract  therefrom  the 
blood.  When  ready  'for  barreling,  each  strip  is  carefully 
cleaned  with  a  knife  or  a  brash,  and  cnt  into  pieces  of  proper 
size  and  weight  for  packing.  After  packing,  pork  should  be 
kept  from  forty  to  fifty  days,  in  a  temperature  of  about  40  1  •'. . 
to  absorb  and  become   thoroughly  impregnated   with   the 

brine;  and,  when  cured,  the  L90  pounds  of  green  meat  origi 
nally  put  into  the  barrel  should  weigh  200  pounds,  the  nel 
weight  of  a  barrel  of  pork. 

Pork  not  thoroughly  cured  is  unmarketable,  and  should 
not  be  accepted  on  contracts. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  135 

If  winter -packed  barreled  pork  is  frozen  before  it  is  thor- 
oughly cured,  it  will  spoil  when  it  is  thawed  ont.  The  freez- 
ing of  the  pork  suspends  the  curing  process,  leaving  the  inner 
portions  of  the  pieces  uncured,  which,  upon  the  thawing  of  the 
pork,  become  centers  of  putrefaction.  Similarly,  if  summer- 
packed  barreled  pork  is  removed  from  the  chill  room  before  it 
is  fully  cured,  the  uncured  inner  portions  of  the  pieces  become 
centers  of  putrefaction. 

Light  mess  pork,  being  made  from  smaller  and  less-fattened 
hogs  than  mess  pork,  is  less  fatty  and  more  palatable  than 
mess  pork,  and,  therefore,  more  desirable  for  Army  use, 

To  Inspect  Barreled  Pork. — Open  six  barrels  taken  at 
random  from  each  one  hundred,  or  the  same  proportion  from 
a  lot  of  less  than  one  hundred  barrels.  Remove  the  pork  from 
the  barrels,  placing  it  on  a  rack;  let  the  pickle  drip  from  the 
pieces ;  remove  any  salt  that  may  adhere  to  them  and  then 
carefully  weigh  and  "try"  them.  Fully  cured  pork,  from 
absorption  of  brine,  will,  previous  to  August  1,  weigh  from 
203  to  208  pounds  to  the  barrel.  Barrels  of  pork  should 
always  contain  plenty  of  undissolved  salt  and  the  brine  should 
always  be  of  full  strength.  All  barrels  that  are  opened  for 
inspection  should  be  carefully  repacked  and  well  recoopered. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  open  more  than  six  barrels  to  the 
hundred,  as  recoopered  barrels  are  more  liable  to  leak  in  trans- 
portation than  those  that  remain  unopened,  but  the  bungs  of 
all  barrels  should  be  opened  and  the  brine  tested. 

Pork  barrels  should  be  made  of  well -seasoned  white  oak  or 
burr  oak,  which  is  free  from  objectionable  sap;  the  staves 
should  be  f  inch  thick  and  29  or  30  inches  long ;  the  heads 
should  be  18  inches  in  diameter,  1  inch  thick  in  the  center,  and 
-§-  inch  thick  at  bevel ;  and  the  hoops  should  be  of  hickory  or 
white  oak.  The  barrels  should  be  hooped  not  less  than  eleven- 
sixteenths  of  their  entire  length. 

Storage  of  Pork.— Pork  should,  if  possible,  be  stored  in 
cellars,  and  if  no  cellars  are  available,  on  the  first"  floor  of  the 
building.  It  should  not  be  stored  more  than  two  tiers  high. 
If  there  is  plenty  of  floor  space  tiering  should  not  be  resorted 
to,  as  when  thus  stored  it  is  not  easy  to  ' '  roll  "  it.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  storeroom,  to  prevent  the  pork  from  freezing, 
should  not  be  lower  than  36°  F. 


136  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STOR] 

To  ' '  roll  pork "  means  to  roll  the  barrels  containing  pork, 
on  their  skids,  through  a  distance  equal  to  one-half  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  barrel,  and  thereby  reverse  the  position  of 
the  barrels  and  the  pork  with  reference  to  the  brine.  The 
object  of  rolling  pork  is  to  equalize  the  exposure  of  the  inside 
of  the  barrels  and  the  pork  to  the  action  of  the  brine,  and 
thereby  preserve  the  integrity  of  the  barrels  and  the  pork. 
If,  in  rolling  pork,  the  rattle  of  salt  striking  against  tin 'inside 
of  the  barrel  is  heard,  it  indicates  a  deficiency  of  brine.  Bar- 
rels deficient  in  brine  should  be  filled  up  therewith  immedi- 
ately and  marked  for  early  issue  or  use.  Pork  should  be 
rolled  weekly. 

To  Tier  Pork. — When,  for  lack  of  sxmce,  it  is  necessary  to 
tier  pork  and  have  suitable  convenience  in  rolling  it,  place 
the  first  tier  upon  skids  on  the  ground;  sink  posts  in  the 
ground  at  equal  intervals  and  place  the  skids  for  the  second 
tier  upon  these  posts,  leaving  an  interval  of  4  inches  between 
tiers;  leave  at  one  extremity  of  each  tier  a  space  equal  to 
one-half  the  circumference  of  a  barrel,  and  so  continue  t<> 
build  tiers  as  long  as  it  is  consistent  with  the  strength  of  the 
structure.  Any  tier  can  then  be  rolled  separately  without 
disturbing  any  other  tier.  By  building  these  structures  pork 
can  be  stored  four  or  five  tiers  high  and  space  correspondingly 
economized.     One  man  can  roll  the  barrels. 

To  Repack  Barreled  Pork. — To  repack"  barreled  pork, 
take  all  of  it  out  of  the  barrel,  pour  out  all  of  the  brine  ami 
salt,  and  rinse  and  recooper  the  barrel;  after  scraping  ofE  the 
discolored  parts  of  the  pork,  reweigh  and  repack  it  in  the 
barrel  in  layers,  covering  each  layer  with  a  layer  of  dry, 
coarse  salt,  about  A  inch  thick;  head  up  the  barrel  and  place 
it  on  one  of  its  chimes,  bore  a  hole  in  the  upper  head,  ami 
through  a  funnel  placed  in  the  hole  fill  the  barrel  with  brine. 

New  brine,  when  practicable,  should  be  used  in  repacking 
pork.    If,  however,  for  want  <»f  salt  to  make  new  brine  il  is 

absolutely  necessary  to  use  the  old  brine,  it  should  first  be 
boiled,  skimmed,  and  cooled,  and  then  run  through  a  brine 
filter,  hereafter  to  be  described.  No  sour,  i.  e.,  spoiled,  pieces 
of  pork  should  be  replaced  in  the  barrel 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  137 

To  Make  Brine.— The  best  way  to  make  brine  is  with  a 
brine  filter.  To  make  a  brine  filter :  Take  the  head  out  of 
one  end  of  a  water-tight  barrel  or  cask  and  set  it  upright 
upon  a  foundation  about  2  feet  high ;  place  in  the  barrel  or 
cask,  set  on  blocks  about  10  inches  high,  a  perforated  false 
bottom ;  over  the  false  bottom  spread  several  thicknesses  of 
gunny-sack  cloth ;  and  provide  the  lower  compartment  with 
a  cock.  To  make  brine  with  this  apparatus,  partly  fill, 
according  to  the  amount  of  brine  required,  the  upper  com- 
partment of  the  filter  with  salt,  and  let  the  water  in  at  the 
top;  it  then  filters  through  the  salt  and  becomes  saturated 
with  it ;  it  then  passes  through  the  gunny-sack  cloth  strainer, 
which  takes  out  all  solid  matter ;  and  it  is  then  deposited  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  filter,  from  which  it  is  then  drawn  off 
for  use  through  the  cock  provided  for  the  purpose. 

Saturated  brine  has  a  density  sufficient  to  float  an  egg.  Brine 
of  less  strength  should  not  be  used  for  packing,  repacking,  or 
rebrining  pork.  Sour  brine,  i.  e.,  contaminated  by  spoiled 
pork,  can  be  detected  by  the  taste. 

Pork  and  other  meats  preserved  by  means  of  brine  are  not 
safe  from  injury  unless  there  is  undissolved  salt  in  the  barrel 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  maintain  its  maximum  or  saturate 
strength.  The  marrow  of  meat  should  never  be  frozen,  as 
the  brine  can  not  then  be  absorbed  thereby,  and  the  meat, 
upon  thawing,  will  become  tainted  at  the  bone  and  progres- 
sively outward.     Such  meat  should  never  be  packed. 

Back-strapping.— By  back-strapping  is  meant  the  cutting 
off  of  wedge-shaped  strips  of  fat,  for  rendering  into  lard,  par- 
allel to  and  above  the  backbone,  and  thus  leaving  a  less  pro- 
portion of  meat. 

Properly  flanked  means  the  removal  of  the  thin  portions  of 
the  belly,  which  are  used  in  making  breakfast  bacon.  The 
regular  proportions  of  flank  and  shoulder  cuts  are  about  as 
follows:  In  mess  pork,  from  three  to  four  shoulder  cuts  to 
each  sixteen  pieces  in  the  barrel ;  in  light  mess  pork,  from 
five  to  six  shoulder  cuts  to  twenty-two  pieces,  or  in  that  pro- 
portion. 

When  a  barrel  of  pork  is  opened  for  use,  the  meat  remaining 
in  the  barrel  should  always  be  kept  completely  covered  with 

339 18 


138  HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

brine.  While  barreled  pork,  by  great  care  and  attention,  can 
be  kept  sonnd  and  sweet  for  years,  it  is  not  advisable  to  pur- 
chase more  than  is  required  to  last  from  one  packing  season 
to  another,  say  from  December  10  of  one  year  to  December 
10  of  the  next  year.  Winter-cured  pork  is  undoubtedly  the 
best  for  long  storage,  and  by  "winter-cured"  is  meant  that 
which  is  cut,  packed,  and  cured  between  November  1  and 
March  1.  The  pork  cured  in  a  temperature  produced  In- 
artificial means,  say  after  the  winter  is  over,  is  as  good  in 
every  respect  for  immediate  use  as  the  winter-cured,  but  it 
will  not  keep  as  long. 

The  supply  of  winter-cured  pork  is  not,  as  a  rule,  exhausted 
before  the  new  supply  comes  in,  as  packers  generally  manage 
to  keep  it  on  hand  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  such  cus- 
tomers as  prefer  it  and  are  willing  to  pay  the  greater  price  it 
commands.  The  purchase  of  summer-cured  pork  is  not 
necessary,  except  in  rare  cases  when  a  sudden  call  is  made  for 
immediate  delivery. 

Each  barrel  of  pork  is  required  to  be  plainly  marked  with 
the  name  of  the  packer,  the  number  of  pieces  in  the  barrel, 
and  the  date  of  packing. 

POTATOES. 

Potatoes  are  the  esculent,  farinaceous  tubers  of  the  Solan  inn 
tuberosum  or  potato  plant,  which  belongs  to  the  order  Solan- 
acece  or  nightshade  family. 

The  potato  plant  lias  been  found  growing  wild  in  Chile. 
Peru,  and  Mexico.  It  was  brought  to  Ireland  by  Sir  John 
Hawking,  in  1565;  to  England  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  in  1585; 
and  again  to  England,  in  the  following  year,  15S0,  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh. 

Gerard  figured  the  plant  and  named  it  Batata  virginiana, 
in  his  "Herbal,"  published  in  1597.  With  respeel  to  tins 
name  he  said:  "We  have  tin' name  proper  t<>ii  mentioned 
in  the  title,  because  it  hath  not  only  the  shape  and  propori  ion 
of  potatoes  [meaning  the  tubers  of  the  Batata  convolvulus 
or  sweet-potato  plant  |.  but  also  the  pleasant  taste  and  virtues 

of  the  same;  we  may  call  it,  in  English,  'potatoes  of  America 

or  Virginia."'     It    did    not.    however,    belong    to    the    genus 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  139 

Batata,  nor  was  it  a  native  of  Virginia.  It  has  since  been 
properly  identified  and  named,  botanically,  as  Solarium  tube- 
roturiii  but  it  still  retains  the  English  form  of  its  first  botan- 
ical name,  "potato,"  as  its  common  name. 

4-nother  notable  fact  with  regard  to  the  nomenclature  of 
nightshade  potatoes  is  that,  although  the  plant  bearing  them 
is  not  a  native  of  Ireland,  they  are  generally  called  ''Irish 
potatoes,"  presumably  because  of  their  early  cultivation  in 
Ireland,  or  because  they  are  used  more  largely  as  food  in 
Ireland  than  in  any  other  country. 

About  the  year  1600,  and  for  some  time  afterwards,  the 
convolvulus  potato  was  spoken  of  as  the  "common  potato," 
and  the  nightshade  potato,  as  the  ' '  new  potato  of  Virginia ; " 
and  the  latter  did  not  become  popular  as  an  article  of  food 
until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Now  the  condi- 
tions are  reversed,  and  the  nightshade  potato  has  become  the 
common  potato,  and  the  convolvulus  potato  the  scarce  potato. 

The  chief  value  of  the  potato  as  an  article  of  food  is  due  to 
its  starch  and,  to  a  less  extent,  to  its  potash  and  other  salts. 
The  quantity  of  nitrogen  in  its  composition  is  small,  and 
hence  it  should  not  be  relied  on  as  a  staple  article  of  diet, 
except  in  admixture  with  milk  or  some  other  substance  con- 
taining nitrogen. 

The  starch  and  its  proportion  to  the  watery  elements  of  the 
potato  furnish  a  means  of  determining  its  cooking  qualities ; 
and,  also,  whether,  after  cooking,  it  will  be  wet  and  soggy 
or  dry  and  mealy.  With  a  sharp  knife  cut  the  potato  as 
nearly  through  the  center  and  as  nearly  perpendicular  to  its 
axis  as  possible;  turn  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  two  parts 
toward  you,  and  observe  their  condition  as  to  moisture;  if 
there  is  more  than  a  slight  moisture,  hold  the  two  cut  sur- 
faces at  an  angle  with  the  floor,  and  if  the  moisture  is  suffi- 
cient to  drip,  the  potato  will  be  soggy  and  poor  when  cooked. 

After  testing  a  potato  for  moisture,  as  above  explained,  place 
the  cut  surfaces  of  the  two  parts  together  and  rub  them 
together  with  a  circular  motion,  and  a  white  froth  of  a  char- 
acter indicative  of  the  quality  of  the  potato  will  form  around 
the  edges  of  the  parts.  A  good,  rich  potato  will  give  a  thick, 
tenacious  froth,  and  a  weak,  watery  one  a  weak,  watery  froth. 


140  HANDBOOK   OF  srP.SISTF.Nci'.    BTOB 

Then  stick  the  cut  surfaces  together,  and  the  degree  of  rich- 
ness of  the  potato  will  be  shown  by  the  greater  or  less  tenac- 
ity with  which  the  parts  cling  to  each  other.  All  of  these 
tests  are  indicative  of  the  proportion  and  quality  of  the 
starch,  upon  which  the  quality  of  the4  potato  depends. 

There  is  very  great  diversity  in  the  quality  of  potatoes, 
depending  on  the  variety,  and  the  soil,  climate,  etc.,  of  the 
place  of  growth;  and  careful  inspection  by  a  competent 
inspector  is  therefore  necessary. 

The  best  method  of  determining  the  quality  of  potatoes  is 
by  cooking  them.  To  cook  potatoes,  place  them  in  cold 
water,  add  a  little  salt,  bring  the  water  to  the  boiling  point, 
and  keep  it  at  that  temperature  until  the  potatoes  are  soft 
enough  to  be  easily  penetrated  with  a  fork,  and,  when  cool, 
test  by  taste  and  appearance.  Potatoes,  when  cooked,  should 
be  dry  and  mealy. 

The  specific  gravity  of  potatoes  should  be  greater  than  that 
of  water  containing  2±  ounces  of  salt  to  the  pint.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  greater  the  specific  gravity  of  pota- 
toes the  better  their  quality.  The  skin  should  be  smooth  and 
firm;  lack  of  firmness  indicates  a  lack  of  maturity.  They 
should  be  free  from  wormholes,  and  dry  or  moist  rot,  the 
latter  especially,  as  one  such  diseased  potato  will  spoil  all 
that  come  in  contact  with  it.  They  should  be  firm  and 
should  cut  with  considerable  resistance,  showing  brittleness 
rather  than  the  reverse.  Potatoes  raised  in  a  dry,  sandy  soil 
are  better  in  quality  than  those  raised  in  a  wet,  heavy  soil. 

If  potatoes  have  sprouted,  it  can  be  detected  by  a  close  exam 
ination  of  the  eye,  or  by  cutting  just  under  the  skin  ;  the  base 
of  the  eye  enlarges  inside  as  the  potato  sprouts,  and  sprouted 
potatoes  generally  present  a  shriveled  appearance. 

Potatoes  should  be  of  medium  size.  The  very  large  ones 
are  coarse  and  very  often  hollow,  and  with  very  small  ones, 
if  peeled  before  cooking,  the  loss  is  considerable. 

Just  before  new-crop  potatoes  come  into  market  there  is  a 
period  when  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  old  crop  potatoes 
of  good  quality. 

Potatoes  for  Army  use  are  shipped  in  sacks  or  crates.  For 
shipment  to  distant  posts  the  crate  is  the  best  receptacle. 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  141 

Potatoes  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry,  and  well-ventilated 

place,  and  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  light  any  more  than 

is  necessary. 

PRESERVE,   DAMSON. 

Damson  preserve  or,  more  accurately,  damson-plum  pre- 
serve, is  prepared  from  the  fruit  of  the  damson  or  Damascus 
plum  tree.  The  name  ''damson "  is  a  contraction  of  the  word 
damascene,  the  adjective  form  of  the  word  Damascus,  the 
name  of  the  ancient  capital  of  Ccele-Syria,  celebrated  for  its 
terebinths,  plums,  and  fabrics  in  steel. 

The  damson-plum  tree  is  a  variety  of  the  Pmmus  domestica, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  imported  into  this  country  from 
England.  Its  fruit  is  a  medium-sized  drupe,  ovoidal  in  shape, 
and,  when  ripe,  has  a  smooth,  dark-purple  skin  covered  with 
a  thick  blue,  bloom.  Its  flesh  is  melting,  juicy,  and  subacid; 
and  the  plum,  therefore,  makes  a  tart,  delicious  preserve. 

To  Make  and  Can  Damson  Preserve. — The  formula  for 
making  and  canning  damson  preserve  is  nearly  identical  with 
that  for  making  and  canning  blackberry  jam,  heretofore 
given — the  only  difference  being  that  a  greater  proportion  of 
sugar  (about  90  pounds  of  sugar  to  100  pounds  of  plums)  is 
used  in  making  the  preserve. 

Damson  plums  ripen  in  August  or  September,  which  is  the 
season  for  making  and  canning  damson  preserve. 

It  is  put  up,  for  Army  use,  in  2-pound  cans,  twenty-four  to 
a  case. 

PRUNES. 

Prunes  are  dried  plums  of  the  better  varieties.  They  are 
largely  produced  in  France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Turkey,  and, 
latterly,  to  quite  a  large  extent  in  Oregon  and  California. 

To  prepare  prunes  for  the  markets  the  plums,  when  ripe,  are 
shaken,  and  not  picked,  from  the  tree.  They  are  then  placed 
in  wire  baskets  and  dipped  for  half  a  minute  in  a  hot,  weak 
solution  of  lye  ( 1  pound  of  concentrated  lye  to  20  gallons  of 
water),  to  cut  or  break  the  skin,  and  at  once  rinsed  in  water. 
A  new  process  is  now  often  substituted  for  the  lye -dipping 
process.  It  involves  the  use  of  a  revolving  cylinder,  into 
which  the  fruit  is  fed  through  a  hopper.  The  inner  surface 
of  the  cylinder  is  studded  with  numerous  short,  sharp -pointed 


143  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOH 

pins,  and  as  the  plums  pass  over  them  the  skin  is  perforated. 
It  is  claimed  that  this  process  produces  sweeter  and  better 
prunes  than  the  lye-dipping  process.  After  the  skins  are 
broken  the  plums  are  placed  on  wooden  trays  and  dried  in  the 
sun,  the  drying  process  requiring  from  one  to  two  weeks, 
according  to  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays;  the  plums  are 
then  placed  in  bins  to  sweat,  and,  after  sweating  thoroughly, 
they  are  finished  or  glossed,  by  dipping  them  in  a  hot  solution 
of  either  sugar  and  water,  honey  and  water,  glycerin  and 
water,  or  isinglass  and  water;  but,  latterly,  the  diluted  juice 
of  the  prune,  obtained  by  soaking  prunes  in  water,  is  being 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  "dipping"  usually  takes  place 
immediately  before  the  prunes  are  packed,  and  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  their  appearance  and  killing  insect  eggs. 

Old  and  stale  prunes  are  hard  and  much  shrivelled,  and 
dealers  frequently  resort  to  redipping,  which  restores  the 
gloss,  but  not  the  softness  and  smoothness  of  the  freshly 
packed  prune. 

To  secure  uniformity  of  size  the  plums  are  run  through 
graders  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  trees,  and  also  a  second 
time  after  they  are  dried.  They  are  graded  as  40's,  50  s.  (Jo's, 
etc.,  i.  e.,  in  sizes  averaging  from  40  to  50,  60  to  70,  etc..  to  the 
pound  when  dried.  These  sizes  are  about  the  largest  now 
grown,  but  some  are  so  small  as  to  average  as  many  as  120  to 
the  pound. 

As  prunes  are  not  pitted,  and  as  the  pits  are  often  as  large 
in  the  smallest  as  in  the  largest  prunes,  the  latter  are  much 
the  more  valuable. 

Good  prunes  are  of  a  uniform  size  and  a  dark,  almost  jet- 
black  color.  The  '-silver"  prune  is  an  exception  to  this  rule, 
being  of  a,  light  color  and  of  a  good  quality,  but  it  is  commer- 
cially rare.  Good  prunes  have  a  thin,  soft,  and  pliable  skin, 
and  an  abundance  of  meat  of  a  rich,  delicately  sweet  flavor. 
Some  fine-looking,  large  sized  prunes  have  a  thick  skin  with 
a  large  pit  and  little  else. 

Prunes  are  usually  put  up  for  the  trade  in  25-pound  boxes. 
If  properly  cured  they  will  keep  a  year. 

They  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  14o 

RAZOR  STROPS. 

The  razor  strops  furnished  for  the  use  of  the  Army  consist 
of  two  parts  or,  rather,  two  strops  combined  in  one  implement. 
One  part  or  strop  is  made  of  Russian  horsehide  leather,  and 
the  other  of  linen-duck  hose  canvas.  The  two  parts  or  strops 
are  sewed  together  at  the  ends  and  form  a  continuous  belt. 
One  end  is  provided  with  a  wooden  handle,  and  the  other 
with  a  swivel  eye  for  attachment  to  a  hook,  placed  in  a  con- 
venient position  for  use,  in  a  wall  or  other  firm  object.  By 
means  of  the  swivel  the  razor  strop  is  readily  reversed  by  the 
operator.  The  metallic  fixtures  are  made  of  brass  and  are 
plated  with  nickel. 

The  razor  strops  are  kept  in  proper  order  for  use  by  apply- 
ing lather  from  the  shaving  cup  to  both  the  leather  and  the 
canvas  parts  twice  a  week  with  a  shaving  brush,  and  after- 
wards rubbing  them  with  a  stick  of  especially  prepared  lead, 
which  is  furnished  with  each  razor  strop.  A  small  tin  tube 
containing  an  oily  dressing  for  occasional  use  on  the  leather 
part  of  the  razor  strop  is  also  furnished.  To  use  the  dress- 
ing, take  enough  of  it  from  the  tube  to  cover  the  tip  of  the 
forefinger  and  apply  it  on  both  sides  of  the  leather  part, 
evenly  distributing  it  by  rubbing.  A  razor  strop  should  not 
be  used  within  an  hour  after  applying  this  dressing.  This 
dressing  should  be  used  only  when  a  proper  edge  on  the  razor 
can  not  otherwise  be  obtained. 

These  razor  strops,  when  properly  stored,  are  warranted  to 
keep  in  good  condition  for  five  years. 

They  are  put  up  separately  in  cartons,  twenty-four  cartons 

to  a  case. 

RICE. 

Rice  is  the  seeds  of  the  Oryza  sativa  or  rice  plant,  which 
belongs  to  the  order  Graminece  or  grass  family. 

It  is  an  annual,  growing,  under  favorable  conditions,  from 
1  to  6  feet  high,  according  to  the  variety.  It  is  a  marsh  plant, 
and  the  best  rice-growing  grounds  are  in  the  low,  flat-lying 
regions  of  country  where  water  is  abundant  and  irrigation 
practicable. 

Rice  has  been  cultivated  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  and, 
like   many  other  plants   of  ancient  cultivation,   its  native 


144  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORKS. 

country  is  unknown.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  favorable  locali- 
ties all  over  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  and  furnishes  the  principal  article  of  subsistence 
for  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  world. 

Rice  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1694  In 
that  year,  a  vessel  from  Madagascar  took  refuge  in  the  harbor 
of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  the  captain  thereof  pre- 
sented a  bag  of  rough  rice  or  "  paddy  *'  to  one  of  the  citizens, 
who  planted  it;  and  the  crop  being  a  success,  the  seed  was 
distributed  and  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  spread  rapidly, 
not  only  over  South  Carolina,  but  all  over  the  Southern 
States. 

Rice  is  cultivated  very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
small  grains.  When  it  reaches  maturity,  it  is  cut  with  the 
sickle  or  cradle,  and  spread  evenly  on  the  stubble,  where  it  is 
allowed  to  remain  for  a  day,  or  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  It 
is  then  bound  into  sheaves  and  put  into  shocks  like  wheat. 
It  is  then  thrashed  in  the  field,  or  hauled  to  the  barnyard, 
stacked  in  ricks,  and  thrashed  there.  The  operation  of  thrash 
ing  only  removes  the  outer  husk,  the  inner  one  being  attached 
to  the  grain.  The  grain  is  winnowed  and  is  then  ready  to  be 
taken  to  the  mill.  In  this  state  it  is  called  "rough  rice"  or 
"paddy." 

To  separate  the  inner  husk  from  the  grain  requires  the  use 
of  expensive  machinery,  and  all  planters,  therefore,  take  the 
rough  rice  to  the  pounding  mills  to  have  it  cleaned.  The 
rough  rice  is  first  ground  between  very  heavy  stones  running 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  which  partly  removes  the  hull  chaff. 
This  chaff  is  conveyed  out  of  the  building  by  means  of  spouts, 
and  the  grain  is  conveyed  by  similar  means  into  mortars, 
where  it  is  beaten  or  pounded  for  a  certain  Length  of*  time  by 
the  alternate  rising  and  falling  of  very  heavy  pestles  shod 
with  iron.  From  these  mortal's  elevators  carry  the  rice  to 
the  fans,  which  separate  tin-  grain  from  the  remains  of  the 
husks.  From  here  the  rice  goes  to  the  fans,  which  divide  il 
into  three  qualities,  "whole,"  "middle,"  and  "small."  The 
whole  or  head  rice  is  then  passed  through  a  polishing  screen 
lined  with  gauze  wire  cloth  and  sheepskins,  which,  revolving 
vertically  at  the  greatest  possible  speed,  gives  it  the  pearly 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  145 

whiteness  which  characterizes  it.  From  the  polishing  screen 
the  rice  falls  directly  into  a  tierce  which  is  slowly  revolving, 
and  is  struck  at  intervals  on  opposite  sides  with  heavy  ham- 
mers to  settle  the  rice  firmly  in  the  tierce  and  enable  it  to  be 
properly  filled.  These  tierces  contain  abont  600  pounds  of 
rice.  Broken  rice,  if  freed  from  grit,  is  about  as  good  food 
as  t he  whole  rice,  but  it  is  not  nearly  so  sightly,  either  in  the 
raw  or  in  the  cooked  state. 

The  composition  of  Carolina  rice,  according  to  Bracannot, 
is.  by  weight,  as  follows,  viz: 

Per  cent. 

Starch 85. 05 

Gluten 3.  60 

Gum 0. 71 

Crystallizable  sugar 0.  29 

Fixed  oil 0. 13 

Cellulose 4.  80 

Water 5.00 

Saline  substances 0.  40 

Total 100.00 

Although  rice  constitutes  so  great  a  proportion  of  the  food 
of  the  human  family,  it  is  with  us  used  very  largely  as  a  lux- 
ury in  the  form  of  xraddings,  cakes,  soups,  etc.  It  is  easy  of 
digestion,  and  therefore  an  excellent  food  for  invalids. 

Rice  should  not  be  cooked  by  boiling,  but  by  steaming 
until  tender,  because  it  yields  to  the  boiling  water  a  consid- 
erable part  of  its  nitrogenous  and  mineral  constituents,  in 
which  it  is  naturally  deficient  in  quantity.  But  this  objec- 
tion to  cooking  rice  by  boiling  does  not  apply  to  its  use  in 
making  soups,  in  which  all  of  its  extracted  constituents  are, 
of  course,  retained.  •  • 

The  best  varieties  of  rice  in  the  markets  of  the  United  States 
are  ''Carolina"  and  " Louisiana, "  of  domestic  growth;  "Is- 
land," from  the  Sandwich  Islands,  grown  from  Carolina  seed ; 
"Rangoon,"  from  Burmah;  "Siani,"  from  Siam;  "China," 
from  China;  and  "Japan,"  from  Japan.  As  a  rule  the  large- 
grain  varieties  command  the  highest  prices ;  an  exception  is 
China  No.  1,  "Sim  Yue  Jim,"  which  has  smaller  grains  and 
commands  a  higher  price  than  No.  2,  "Long  Ah  Jim."  Island 
and  Carolina  resemble  each  other ;  Rangoon  is  more  of  a  dead 

339 — 19 


146  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE    BTOB 

white  and  less  pearly,  as  are  in  a  less  degree  China  and  Siam. 
Japan  is  more  ovoidal  and  natter;  is  of  a  beautiful,  regular, 
pearly  appearance,  and  requires  a  longer  time  to  cook.  The 
characteristics  of  good  rice  are  semi-transparency,  no  grit, 
dust,  or  hulls,  and  few  broken  or  dead-white  grains. 

A  good,  clean,  fresh-milled  head  rice  is  required  for  the 
Army.  When  purchasing  rice  its  color  should  be  carefully 
examined,  as  old -milled  rice  is  of  a  yellow  appearance,  while 
fresh-milled  is  of  a  clean  and  white  appearance.  By  compar- 
ing samples  of  old-milled  rice  and  fresh-milled  rice,  holding 
them  close  to  each  other,  one  will  soon  become  accustomed 
to  their  appearance  and  will  be  able  to  distinguish  the  one 
from  the  other.     Mustiness  is  detected  by  the  smell. 

Rice  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place.     The  grei 
dangers  to  it  are  weevils  and  moisture. 

SALMON,  CANNED. 

The  salmon  is  a  fish  having  flesh  generally  of  a  yellowish- 
red  color,  and  belongs  to  the  genus  Salmo.  It  frequents  the 
waters  of  the  North  Temperate  and  Arctic  Zones.  The  chief 
supply  now  comes  from  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North  America. 
They  are  caught  in  the  Sacramento  River  and  in  nearly  every 
river  which  is  tributary  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  north  thereof, 
as  they  ascend  for  the  purpose4  of  spawning. 

There  are  only  five  species  of  salmon,  but  owing  to  changes 
in  appearance  at  different  seasons  and  in  different  localities 
it  has  been  erroneously  supposed  that  there  were  as  many  as 
twelve.  The  most  highly  prized  of  all  is  the  Chinook  (S.  choui- 
eha)  of  the  Columbia  River.  This  Bpecies,  which  has  flesh 
of  a  beautiful  pink  color,  is  caught  in  many  other  places,  hut 
none  of  them  are  equal  to  those  caught  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River.     They  average  about  22  pounds  in  weight, 

with  ;i  maximum  weight  of  from  65  to  ?<>  pounds.      The  blue 

back  is  prized  on  account  of  thebrighl  red  color  of  its  flesh. 

It  is  much  smaller  than  the  Chinook.  The  white  (S.  kisuteh  ) 
or  silversio.es  is  of  a  tine  flavor,  but  its  flesh  is  of  a  poCTCOlor. 
These  three  species  are  called  by  different  names  in  different 
localities,  viz:  In  Alaska,  "'King,"  "Blood  red,"  and  "Sil- 
ver," respectively,  and  on  Pugel  Sound,  "Tyee      'Sock-eye," 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  147 

and   "Silver,"  respectively.     The  other  two  species  are  not 
known  to  commerce. 

The  canning  season  varies  decidedly  according  to  locality; 
on  the  Columbia  River  it  is  from  April  10  to  August  10;  in 
Alaska,  from  April  to  August,  and,  in  certain  streams  between 
these  two  points  and  south  of  the  Columbia  River,  from  Sep- 
tember to  January. 

In  all  cases  as  salmon  advance  up  the  streams  they  deterio- 
rate in  quality — possibly  on  account  of  the  fresh  water,  lack 
<  >r  change  of  food,  the  labor  of  ascending  the  streams,  or  other 
causes  incident  to  the  breeding  season. 

They  are  caught  mostly  by  the  canners  in  gill  nets,  salmon 
wheels,  seines,  pound  nets,  and  dip  nets,  and  by  the  inhabitants 
with  spears  and  hooks  and  in  baskets  as  they  fall  back  from 
the  crests  of  the  falls. 

The  first  attempt  at  canning  salmon  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
was  made  on  the  Sacramento  River,  in  1864;  the  next  on  the 
Columbia  River,  in  1866 ;  the  latter  stream,  since  that  time,  has 
furnished  about  10,000,000  cases. 

The  salmon-canning  industry  has  only  been  established  ten 
years  in  Alaska,  yet,  at  this  time,  more  than  one-third  of  the 
salmon  from  the  Pacific  Coast  are  caught  in  Alaskan  waters. 

Some  salmon  are  cured  in  barrels  with  salt,  and  a  few  are 
smoked,  but  the  bulk  are  packed  in  1 -pound  and  2-pound  cans, 
forty-eight  cans  of  the  former  size  and  twenty-four  of  the 
latter  to  the  case. 

Professors  Jordan  and  Gilbert  describe  the  process  of  can- 
ning salmon  as  follows,  viz : 

'*The  salmon  are  brought  to  the  wharf,  usually  in  the 
morning,  counted,  and  thrown  in  a  heap.  A  man  then  takes 
the  fish  in  succession,  cuts  off  their  heads,  tails,  and  fins, 
removes  their  viscera,  and  throws  them  into  a  large  tub. 
Some  of  the  cutters  become  very  expert  and  will  clean  1,700 
fish  per  day.  Next  the  fish  are  washed  and  sometimes  scraped 
with  a  knife,  though  the  scales  are  not  removed.  Then  they 
are  placed  in  a  trough  in  which  are  several  knives  acting  like 
a  feed  cutter,  cutting  the  salmon  into  sections  as  long  as  the 
height  of  the  can.  These  sections  are  set  on  end  and  split  into 
about  three  pieces,  one  large  enough  to  fill  a  can,  the  others 


148  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

smaller.  These  fragments  are  placed  on  tables  and  men  lit 
them  into  cans.  Other  men  put  on  the  tops,  and  still  others 
solder  them.  In  some  canneries  the  soldering  is  done  by 
machinery.  In  this  case  the  cans  are  rolled  along  by  an  iron 
chain  belt  and  the  top  end  rolls  around  in  melted  solder. 
Most  of  the  canners  think  the  hand-soldering  safer,  although 
much  more  labor  is  required.  After  soldering,  the  cans  are 
placed  in  hot  water  and  carefully  watched  to  see  if  any  bub- 
bles rise  from  them,  indicating  a  leak  in  the  can.  If  perfect. 
the  can  is  placed  in  an  iron  tank  and  boiled  in  salt  water — it 
being  possible  to  raise  salt  water  to  a  higher  temperature 
than  fresh.  After  being  boiled  about  one  and  one-fourth 
hours,  the  can  is  taken  out  and  vented  by  puncturing  the  top 
of  the  can — the  pressure  within  driving  out  all  the  air  through 
the  aperture  made.  The  hole  is  immediately  soldered  up,  and 
the  cooking  completed  by  again  boiling  the  can  for  one  and 
one-half  hours,  in  the  processing  tank,  in  salt  water.  If  the 
process  of  cooking  w<  >re  c<  anpleted  1  >ef  <  >re  the  cans  wen  >  vented, 
the  pressure  would  be  sufficient  to  burst  the  cans.  The  cans 
are  afterwards  tested  by  tapping  on  the  head.  If  the  can  is 
leaky,  it  gives  back  a  "tinny"  sound  which  is  easily  recog- 
nized. This  is  a  very  important  matter,  as  some  canneries 
lose  largely  by  careless  testing — the  leaky  cans  afterwards 
bursting  and  damaging  more  or  less  the  contents  of  an  entire 
case.  The  cans  are  usually  tested  three  or  four  fcimes,  and 
by  different  workmen.  A  leaky  can  is  simply  sent  back  to  be 
resoldered  and  reprocessed.  The  cans  are  all  made  on  the 
premises  from  sheet  tin  imported  for  the  purpose.  The  cosl 
of  the  tin  can  is  estimated  at  one-ninth  of  the  cost  of  the  can 
of  salmon.  On  an  average,  three  salmons  till  one  case  of 
forty-eight  1-pound  cans." 

The  best  canned  salmon  is  firm,  rich,  and  oily,  and  has  a 
bright  yellowish-red  color,  and  the  superiority  in  quality  can 
be  detected  by  appearance,  touch,  and  taste. 

Swelled  or  bulged  head  cans,  known  as  'swells."  are  spoiled 
cans,  and  while  they  do  not  det  raet  from  the  other  cans  in  the 
case,  nor  justify  their  condemnation,  no  lot  containing  them 
should  be  purchased. 

Salmon  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  pla 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  149 

SALT. 

The  salt  of  commerce  is  a  slightly  impure  sodium  chloride. 
The  impurities  differ  in  the  salt  obtained  from  different 
sources,  both  in  kind  and  amount;  those  most  commonly 
found  being  calcium  and  magnesium  chlorides,  and  calcium, 
magnesium,  and  sodium  surphates. 

Salt  is  very  widely  and  abundantly  distributed  geograph- 
ically. It  is  obtained  by  evaporation  from  sea  water  and 
other  natural  brines,  and  by  mining  from  natural "  beds. 
Deposits  of  salt  in  beds,  in  connection  with  other  geologic 
formations,  are  quite  common.  Salt  found  in  this  condition 
is  called  rock  salt.  The  beds  are  presumed  to  have  been 
formed  by  portions  of  the  sea  having  been  cut  off  from  the 
main  body  and  the  water  thereof  evaporating  and  depositing 
its  entire  saline  constituents.  Rock  salt  is  usually  found  in 
large  cubical  crystals,  and,  in  some  cases,  in  such  a  state  of 
purity  as  to  be  fitted  for  use.  More  commonly,  however,  it 
is  contaminated  with  impurities,  various  coloring  matters 
frequently  being  present,  which  give  it  a  blue,  red,  or  yellow 
color.  In  such  cases  it  is  usual  to  dissolve  the  salt  in  the  mine, 
by  flowing  in  water,  which  is  afterwards  pumped  out  in  the 
fori  u  of  brine  and  submitted  to  the  evaporating  procees.  Rock 
salt  is  the  source  of  supply  of  most  of  the  salt  of  Russia,  Eng- 
land, and  many  other  countries ;  and  there  are  large  deposits 
of  it  in  Louisiana,  the  principal  one  being  on  what  is  known 
,i-  A  \ cry's  or  Petite  Anse  Island,  on  the  coast  of  that  State. 

Sea  water  contains  about  3  per  cent  of  sodium  chloride  and 
1  per  cent  of  other  mineral  matters,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  magnesium  chloride  and  sodium,  magnesium,  and 
calcium  sulphates.  So  weak  and  impure  a  brine  can  not  be 
profitably  evaporated  by  artificial  heat,  but  by  allowing  it  to 
now  into  shallow  reservoirs  which,  when  filled,  are  shut  off 
from  the  sea,  it  can  be  evaporated  by  the  sun's  heat,  and 
large  amounts  of  salt  are  thus  produced  very  economically. 
Turk's  Island  salt  is  an  example  of  salt  produced  in  this 
maimer.  Sea  water  is  the  chief  source  of  supply  of  salt  in 
Prance,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Central  America,  and  South 
America.  In  the  United  States,  natural  brines  are  found 
abundantly  at  Syracuse  and  Onondaga,  in  New  York ;  in  the 


150  HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

Saginaw  Valley,  in  Michiganj  at  Saltville,  in  Virginia,  and 
other  places.     These  brines   arc  undoubtedly  produced  by 

subterranean  water  coming  in  contact  with  rock  salt  in  situ, 
and  dissolving  it.  In  some  localities  the  brine  flows  from  the 
earth  in  the  form  of  natural  springs,  while  in  others  there 
are  subterranean  reservoirs  which  arc  tapped  by  boring  arte- 
sian wells.  Salt  Lake,  in  Utah,  is  a  great  surface  reservoir  of 
strong,  natural  brine,  from  which  salt  is  produced  as  au 
article  of  commerce. 

Commercially  speaking,  there  are  three  kinds  of  salt,  viz. 
coarse,  fine,  and  dairy.  Coarse  salt  and  fine  salt  differ  only 
in  the  size  of  their  crystals.  Dairy  salt  differs  from  both 
of  the  others  in  being  free  from  impurities  and  having 
smaller  crystals. 

To  Make  Coarse  Salt. — To  make  coarse  salt,  solar  heat 
only  can  be  employed  in  the  evaporating  process,  it  being  a 
natural  law  that,  in  a  solution  of  any  crystallizable  substance. 
the  more  slowly  the  crystals  are  formed  and  the  more  entirely 
at  rest  is  the  solution,  the  larger  will  be  the  crystals  formed. 
The  evaporation  is  conducted  in  wooden  vats  supplied  with 
wooden  covers  for  excluding  rain  and  lessening  the  cooling  of 
the  brine  at  night.  In  order  the  more  effectually  to  remove 
the  impurities  from  the  brine,  which  consist  principally  of 
calcium  sulphate,  calcium  and  magnesium  chlorides,  and  t'er 
rous  carbonate,  several  vats  arranged  in  a  series  are  used. 
and  the  brine  drawn  successively  from  one  into  another.  It 
is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  first  vat  until  the  ferrous  carbonate 
is  decomposed  into  carbonic  acid  and  ferrous  hydroxide— the 
former  escaping  in  the  form  of  a  gas  and  the  latter  settling 

to  the  bottom  of  the  vat    as  a  bulky,  brown  semi  solid.      The 

brine  is  then  drawn  off  into  another  vat.  where  it  is  alh> 

to  remain  until  the  crystals  of  salt  begin  to  form  in  it.  when 
it  is  drawn  off  into  another  vat.  During  the  time  it  is  in  the 
second  vat  a-  considerable  amount  of  calcium  sulphate  is  pre- 
cipitated, and  this  is  left  behind  when  the  brine  is  drawn  off. 
After  drawing  off  the  brine  from  the  second  into  the  third 
vat,  the  process  of  evaporation   goes  on,  and   the  salt    forms 

in  large  crystals,  which  are  removed  from  time  t<»  time,  until 
the  density  of   the  mother  liquor  is  reduced   t<>  about  30 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  151 

Baunir.  When  it  is  discharged.  The  crystals,  when  taken 
from  the  brine,  are  washed  and  put  into  the  perforated  top 
of  the  vat  to  drain.  The  drained  crystals  are  the  "coarse 
salt"  of  commerce. 

To  Make  Fine  Salt. — To  make  fine  salt,  i.  e.,  ordinary 
sal  t .  artificial  heat  is  employed.  The  evaporation  is  conducted 
in  large  iron  pans  or  iron  kettles,  heated  by  steam  or  over  a 
furnace.  Cast-iron  kettles,  holding  about  140  gallons>  are 
generally  used.  Fifty  or  sixty  of  these  are  set  in  a  double 
tow  along  two  flues,  6  or  8  feet  apart,  provided  with  separate 
furnaces,  but  having  a  single  chimney.  The  kettles  nearest 
the  furnaces  are  protected  from  receiving  too  much  heat, 
while,  by  means  of  a  high  chimney,  assisted  by  mechanical 
blowers,  a  strong  draft  is  created  which  carries  the  heat  to 
the  kettles  farthest  away  from  the  furnaces.  To  remove 
impurities,  a  sheet-iron  false  bottom  provided  with  a  bail  is 
placed  in  each  kettle  before  the  brine  is  put  into  it.  As  soon 
as  the  evaporation  has  proceeded  so  far  that  salt  crystals  are 
beginning  to  form,  the  false  bottoms  are  carefully  lifted  out 
of  the  kettles,  together  with  the  calcium  sulphate  (gypsum) 
and  <  >ther  impurities  which  have  been  precipitated  upon  them. 
When,  as  the  evaporation  continues,  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
salt  has  been  crystallized,  it  is  well  stirred  for  the  purpose  of 
washing  it  in  the  remaining  liquor,  and  it  is  then  removed 
from  the  kettles  and  placed  in  baskets,  which  are  suspended 
over  the  kettles  to  drain.  After  draining  several  hours,  the 
salt  is  removed  to  the  "stove  rooms,"  i.  e.,  the  drying  rooms, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  two  or  three  weeks,  or  until  it 
is  dry.  This  dried  salt  is  the  "fine  salt"  of  commerce,  and  is 
ready  to  be  barreled  or  sacked  and  sent  to  market. 

The  quality  of  salt,  whether  coarse  or  fine,  depends  upon 
its  relative  freedom  from  impurities,  and  also  upon  their 
character.  Calcium  sulphate, .  which  is  usually  present  in 
larger  proportion  than  any  other  impurity,  is  much  less  objec- 
tionable than  the  calcium  and  magnesium  chlorides  or  the 
magnesinm  sulphate.  These  latter  are  present  in  considerably 
larger  proportions  in  the  brines  of  Michigan  than  those  of 
New  York,  which  accounts  for  the  superior  quality  of  the 
dairy  salt  of  the  latter  State. 


152  HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

To  Make  Dairy  Salt.— Dairy  salt  should  be  entirely  free 

from  calcium  and  magnesium  chlorides  and  magnesium  sul- 
phate, which  have  a  bitter  taste  It  is  usually  made  by 
selecting  extra  pure  salt,  either  coarse  or  fine ;  carefully  wash- 
ing it;  grinding  it  to  a  fine  powder,  to  facilitate  its  solution 
in  water;  dissolving  it  in  water;  and  subjecting  the  resulting 
brine  to  the  artificial  beat  evaporating  process. 

Dairy  salt  should  be  fine-grained,  white,  and  dry,  and  witb- 
out  bitter  taste. 

Uses  of  Salt. — Salt  appears  to  be  essential  to  the  life  of 
man  and  of  the  higher  animals,  and  is  the  only  solid  mineral 
substance  that  is  purposely  added  to  and  consumed  as 
human  or  animal  food.  It  undergoes  certain  useful  changes 
in  the  animal  body,  and  is  not  eaten  merely  to  be  excreted. 
Its  chlorine  helps  to  furnish  the  hydrochloric  acid  of  the  gas 
trie  juice,  and  the  potassium  chloride  found  in  the  red  blood 
corpuscles  and  in  the  muscles.  Its  sodium  forms  part  of  tbe 
sodium  salts,  which  are  the  characteristic  constituents  of 
bile,  and  of  the  sodium  phosphate  of  the  blood.  It  is  a  very 
powerful  antiputrefactive,  and  is  therefore  used  as  the  prin- 
cipal preservative  of  animal  foods. 

Coarse  salt  is  used  chiefly  in  packing  pork  and  beef;  fine 
salt  for  curing  other  meals,  and  as  food  for  domestic  animals; 
and  dairy  salt  for  preserving  butter,  and  as  food  for  man. 
The  common  grades  of  salt  are  largely  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sodium  carbonate,  to  be,  in  turn,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap  and  glass.  Hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid, 
which  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts,  and  chlorine,  which  is 
largely  used  in  bleacheries,  are  made  by  decomposing  salt. 

The  common  grades  of  salt  are  put  Up  for  the  trade  in  bags 
and  barrels,  and  the  finer  grades  in  packets  or  small  box< 

Salt  for  Army  use  is  purchased  in  the  original  packages. 

SARDINES. 

The  sardine  is  a  small  fish  of  the  genus  Clupea,  t<>  which 
the  herring  also  belongs.  It  is  caught  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  near  the  Island  of  Sardinia,  after  which  it  is  named.  It 
is  also  caught  off  the  coast  of  Brittany.  (Jreat  attention  has 
been  given  to,  and  great  perfection  achieved  in.  the  packing 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  153 

of  sardines  in  France,  whence  come  the  best  sardines;  and 
it  maybe  stated  as  an  important  fact  with  respect  to  sardines, 
tin  it  excellency  of  quality  is  a  sine  qua  non. 

The  sardine  lacking  season  opens  in  May  and  closes  in  Sep- 
tember or  October.  The  fish  are  canght  with  drift  seines,  and 
promptly  carried  to  the  canneries  by  boats.  At  the  canneries 
tiny  are  carefully  picked  over  and  all  "soft,"l  e.,  nnsound 
fish,  rejected.  They  are  then  graded  according  to  size,  and 
prepared  by  being  dressed,  salted,  partly  dried,  and  then 
scalded  in  hot  olive  oil,  put  into  tin  boxes  with  hot,  salted 
olive  oil  or  hot,  salted  olive  oil  and  butter,  and  hermetically 
sealed.  The  tin  boxes  are  of  three  sizes,  viz,  "wholes," 
1 '  halves, "  and  ' '  quarters. "  The  whole  boxes  are  5  inches  long, 
4  inches  wide,  and  3£  inches  deep ;  the  half  boxes  are  5  inches 
long,  4  inches  wide,  and  If  inches  deep ;  and  the  quarter  boxes 
are  4f  inches  long,  3£  inches  wide,  and  l£  inches  deep. 

Sardines  are  put  up  in  cases  containing  50  whole  boxes,  100 
half  boxes,  and  100  quarter  boxes,  respectively. 

After  being  packed,  sardines  improve  with  age  for  probably 
two  years  or  more,  and  should  not  be  used  under  four  months. 

They  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place  to  prevent  the  rusting 
of  the  tin  boxes.  No  especial  care  is  necessary  in  repacking 
them  for  shipment,  but  sawdust  is  often  put  in  the  cases 
between  the  boxes  to  prevent  them  from  being  indented  by 
rough  handling. 

For  Army  use,  half  boxes  and  quarter  boxes  are  purchased. 

SAUCE,  WORCESTERSHIRE. 

The  genuine  Worcestershire  Sauce  is  made  by  Lea  &  Per- 
rins,  chemists,  Worcester,  England. 

The  words  "Worcestershire  Sauce  "  are  used  upon  an  indefi- 
nite number  of  table  sauces,  but  the  name  "Lea  &  Perrins," 
bring  copyrighted  in  this  country,  can  not  be  used  as  a  part  of 
a  label  for  Worcestershire  Sauce  without  an  infringement  of 
law. 

Persons  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  genuine  Worcester- 
shire Sauce  readily  detect  imitations  by  their  lack  of  proper 
flavor  and  bouquet. 


154  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTED   I     BTOJ 

It  is  put  up  for  the  trade  in  half -pint  bottles,  in  cases  con- 
taining thirty-six  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  bottles,  respect- 
ively; and  in  pint  bottles,  in  cases  containing  twenty-four  and 
sixty  bottles,  respectively. 

For  Army  use,  half -pint  bottles  only  are  purchased. 

SHRIMPS,  CANNED. 

Canned  shrimps  are  prepared  from  small,  long-tailed  decapod 
crustaceans    belonging   to    the    genus    Crangon,    having   a 

delicately  flavored  flesh  of  a  pretty  reddish  color  when  cooked. 

For  canning,  shrimp  should  be  fresh,  and,  therefore,  should 
be  carried  to  the  cannery  as  soon  as  possible  after  being  taken 
from  the  water.  Upon  arrival  at  the  cannery  they  are  cleaned, 
put  on  large  tables,  and  stripped  of  their  crusty  shells  by  hand. 
They  are  then  placed  in  large  wire  crates  and  parboiled,  after 
which  they  are  steamed,  cooled,  and  canned. 

As  contact  of  the  shrimps  with  the  tin  would  cause  the 
inside  of  the  cans  to  corrode  and  turn  black  and  injure  the 
shrimps,  they  are  protected  from  contact  with  the  tin  by  being 
placed  in  cotton-cloth  bags.  This  is  effected  by  placing  a  bag 
in  each  can,  weighing  into  it  the  proper  amount  of  dn 
shrimps,  closing  the  bag  by  carefully  folding  over  the  end, 
and  then  putting  on  the  top  of  the  can  and  soldering  it. 

Cans  for  packing  shrimps  are  soldered  on  the  outside. 

Canned  shrimps  have  very  good  keeping  qualities,  but  they 
do  not  improve  with  increase  of  age.  It  is,  therefore,  not 
advisable  to  accumulate  a  greater  supply  of  them  than  is 
sufficient  to  last  until  the  next  pack  conies  into  the  market. 

For  shrimps  there  are  two  packing  seasons  in  each  year, 
viz,  the  spring  and  the  fall.  The  spring  packing  season  opens 
in  March  and  closes  in  May,  'and  the  fall  packing  season  opens 
in  August  and  closes  in  November. 

Shrimps  are  put  up  in  cans  of  medium  size,  twenty  four  to 
a  case. 

SIRUP,   CANE. 

Cane  sirup,  called  in  Louisiana  strop  <ic  batterie,   is  the 

residuum  of*  the  process  of  refining  raw  cane  sugar. 

As  cane  sirup  contains  a  greater  or  less  proportion  of  orya 
tallizable  sugar,  it  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  deposit  more  or 
less  crystallized  sugar  in  the  receptacles  containing  it. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  155 

Cane  sirup  is  frequently  adulterated  with  glucose.  Glu- 
cose, as  heretofore  explained  in  the  article  on  "Sugar,"  is 
deficient  in  sweetness.  It  is,  however,  of  a  glycerin-like  clear- 
ness and  consistency.  Its  effect,  therefore,  as  an  adulterant 
of  cane  sirup,  is  to  reduce  sweetness  and  improve  appear- 
ance. Cane  sirup  and  molasses,  adulterated  with  glucose, 
flavoring  extracts,  etc.,  are  put  upon  the  market  under  the 
name  of  "golden  sirup."  The  agitation  of  cane  sirup  inci- 
dent to  its  removal  from  one  place  to  another,  in  warm 
weather,  and  particularly  that  incident  to  its  transportation 
over  considerable  distances,  is  liable  to  throw  it  into  a  state 
of  internal  commotion  of  greater  or  less  violence,  accompanied 
by  expansion  in  volume  and  a  tendency  to  ebullition;  and 
whenever  a  lot  is  received  in  this  condition  it  should  be  stored 
in  a  cool  cellar  and  the  bungs  taken  out  of  the  barrels. 
When  it  is  thus  stored  for  a  few  days  it  generally  becomes 
quiet  without  sustaining  injury. 

A  ready  and  excellent  method  of  determining  the  quality  of 
a  sample  of  cane  sirup  is  to  put  about  a  teaspoonful  of  it  into 
a  porcelain  dish,  and  a  large  pinch  of  bicarbonate  of  soda; 
blend  them  rapidly  with  the  finger ;  the  better  the  sirup  the 
lighter  will  be  the  color  of  the  blend  and  the  more  rapidly  it 
will  rise.  Much  glucose  in  the  sample  has  the  effect  of  mak- 
ing it  heavy  and  become  darker  under  this  process. 

Everything  else  being  equal,  the  cane  sirup  that  has  the 
greatest  density  is  the  best.  To  ascertain  the  density,  use  a 
Baume  hydrometer. 

New-crop  cane  sirup  comes  into  market  about  the  middle  of 
November. 

Cane  sirup  readily  ferments,  and  therefore  should  not  be 
shipped  in  warm  weather,  and  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place. 

Cane  sirup  is  put  up  in  1 -gallon  cans,  four  or  six  to  the  case, 
and  10-gallon  kegs,  containing  8  gallons. 

An  "outage  "  or  vacant  space  of  not  less  than  20  per  cent  of 
their  capacity  should  be  left  in  all  receptacles  containing 
cane  sirup,  to  permit  of  its  expansion. 

If  overboiled  in  contact  with  the  air,  sucrose  changes  in 
character,  and,  especially  if  an  acid  is  present,  becomes 
changed  into  what  is  called  invert  sugar. 


156  HANDBOOK   OF   si  I 

This  invert  sugar  can  be  separated  into  t  wo  kinds— dexl  r 
a  crystallized  fiber  sugar,  and  a  non-crystallized  sugar  called 
levulose  or  fruit  sugar  both  chemically  identical  with  glu< 
Sirups   containing   invert    sugar   are   most    apt   to   ferment. 
alcohol,  and  then  carbonic  acid,  being  formed.     Thisfermenta 
tion,    with  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid,   accounts  for  the 
occasional  finding  of  swelled  cans  of  sirup  in  a  lot,  as. 
heating  while  in  store  or  during  transportation  lias  the  same 
effect  as  overboiling  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

SOAP,   LAUNDRY. 

Laundry  soap  is  a  composition  of  fatty  acids,  alkali,  and 
water,  the  acids  being  fats  and  oils  of  all  kinds,  and  the  alkali, 
soda.  Sometimes  resin  is  added  to  increase  the  weight  and 
cheapen  the  cost  of  production.  Soap  containing  resin  in 
excess  dissolves  in  water  too  rapidly  and  is  strongly  caustic 
and  relatively  soft,  and  these  characteristics  appear  to  be 
more  pronounced  when  the  fatty  acids  used  are  oils  instead 
of  fats.  The  proportion  of  alkali  is  from  6  to  s  per  cent  ;  the 
proportion  of  acids,  from  40  to  Coper  cent ;  and  the  remainder 
is  water.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  alkali,  provided  it  is 
chemically  combined  with  the  fatty  acid,  the  better  tho  soap. 
Alkali  not  chemically  combined  with  the  fatty-acid  ingredient 
of  soap  is  simply  an  admixture  of  free  alkali.  Such  soap  is 
ioo  "sharp"  and  injures  the  lamidried  fabrics. 

The  fatty  materials  used  in  making  laundry  soap  are  as 
follows,  viz: 

1.  Tallow. — Tallow  ranks  foremost  among  tne  fats  used  in 
soap  making.  Alone,  it  does  not.  however,  make  a  soap 
adapted  for  hoi  climates,  as  in  such  climates  tallow  soap 
becomes  so  liard  that  it  is  almost  useless. 

2.  Grease. — The  term  "grease, "as  used  commercially,  com 
prises  various  fatty  matters  of  animal  origin,  and  is  extra 
from   bones,    hides,    the   refuse    of   kitchens,    and    from    those 
parts  of  all   animals  which   do  not    yield    fat    that    might  1><- 
classed  as  tallow  or  lard. 

:;.   Cotton  seed  oil. 
1.   Palm  oil. 

5.  Cocoanut  Oil.  Cocoanut  oil  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  "padded"  or  "filled"  soaps.     Wnen  used  with  tallow  and 


HAND  Hook    OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  157 

resin,  it  will  take  up,  in  saponification,  large  quantities  of 
water,  water  glass,  and  similar  fillings.  A  soap  known  to 
contain  cocoanttt  oil  should  not  be  purchased  for  the  Army, 
as  it  probably  has  in  it  a  large  excess  (70  or  80  per  cent)  of 
water. 

6.  Red  oil. — When  tallow  is  used  in  manufacturing  glycerin 
and  stearic  acid  for  commercial  purposes,  oleic  acid,  known 
rniiimercially  as  "red  oil,"  is  produced  as  a  residuum,  and  is 
used  quite  extensively  as  a  material  for  making  laundry  soap. 
According  as  the  fat  has  been  decomposed  by  distillation,  or 
by  treating  it  with  lime  and  a  current  of  steam,  the  oleic  acid 
is  known  as  ' '  distilled  "or  "  saponified. "  The  distilled  red  oil 
is  thinner  than  the  saponified,  and  is  contaminated  with  the 
by-products  of  the  process.  The  saponified  is,  therefore,  the 
better  material  of  the  two. 

Before  using  red  oil  for  making  laundry  soap;  it  is  frequently 
irst  treated  with  nitrous  acid,  which  changes  it  into  a  sub- 
stance as  hard  as  tallow,  and  from  which  a  very  fine  soap, 
resembling  tallow  soap,  can  be  made. 

The  alkali  material  is  usually  soda. 

If,  after  a  soap  is  "made,"  the  lye  in  which  it  is  suspended 
is  concentrated  to  a  point  short  of  that  necessary  to  produce 
hard  curd  soap,  and  it  is  then  transferred  to  the  cooling 
frames  with  a  certain  quantity  of  lye  entangled  in  it,  these 
insoluble  particles  will,  during  the  solidification  of  the  soap, 
collect  together  and  produce  the  peculiar  appearance  known 
as  "mottled." 

Red  oil  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  well- 
known  ' '  German  mottled  "  bar  soap.  This  is  a  "  boiled  down" 
soap,  and  therefore  harder  and  less  wasteful  than  the  ordinary 
s(  tap  made  from  the  same  stock. 

When  in  the  process  of  making  soap  the  saponification  is 
complete,  the  mass  is  drawn  off  from  the  boiler  into  the 
' '  cruncher  "  and  allowed  to  settle.  In  the  process  of  settling, 
the  residuum,  called  from  its  black  color  "nigre,"  and  which 
constitutes  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  the  boiled  mass,  falls  to 
the  bottom  and  is  drawn  off  and  generally  thrown  away,  as  it 
is  not  profitable  to  extract  the  glycerin  therefrom. 


158  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTED   I     STORES. 

"Floating"  soap  is  made  hy  beating  the  Bemiflnid,  saponi- 
fied mass  while  in  the  crutcher,  until  sufficient  air  La  in1 

mingled  therewith  to  reduce  the  specific  gravity  of  the  soap 
cut  therefrom,  when  it  hardens,  to  less  than  1  . 

Laundry  soap  is  usually  cut  into  short-weight  L -pound  bars 
and  packed  in  boxes  containing  from  forty  to  one  hundred 
bars  each. 

Laundry  soap  improves  with  age  and  no  especial  can 
necessary  in  its  storage  or  transportation. 

Good  soap  is  firm,  resists  the  pressure  of  the  thumb,  and. 
when  rubbed  with  the  fingers,  has  a  smooth  feeling.  1  \ 
consistency  and  streakiness  of  color  indicate  the  presence  of 
free  alkali;  and  a  lightish  color,  smooth  surface,  and  smooth 
appearance  indicate  less  free  alkali,  less  resin,  and  a  better 
chemical  combination.  Usually  the  relative  proportion* 
water  contained  in  different  samples  can  be  determined  by 
handling  them,  but  if  accuracy  is  required,  they  may  be  deter 
mined  as  follows,  viz : 

Cut  a  bar  of  the  sample  of  soap  in  two,  take  some  shavings 
from  the  fresh  surface,  put  them  in  a  weighed  porcelain  dish 
and  weigh  them ;  note  the  weight  of  the  dish  and  the  soap; 
dry  first  at  122°  F.  and  finally  at  about  230  F.  until  constant  ; 
reweigh  dish  and  dried  shavings,  deduct  weight  of  dish,  and 
calculate  according  to  the  following  formula,  viz: 

Porcelain  dish  and  sample 47.6 

Porcelain  dish 42.8 

i'  taken I 

Porcelain  dish  and  soap 47. »'» 

Porcelain  dish  and  (hied  soap 46.  1 

1.6 
1.6 

31.  26  per  cent 

4.8 

The  fatty  acids  may  !>•'  determined  as  follows,  viz: 

Cut  a  bar  of  tin- sample  soap  in  two;   take  Borne  shavings 

from  a  freshly  cut  surface;   weigh  the  shavings  into  a  beaker; 
add  water;  hoil  until   soap  18  dissolved;    add   solution  of  sul 

phuric  acid  in  excess,  and  the  soda  will  then  be  precipitated 

as  a   sulphate    and    the    fatty    acid    will    floal    Oil    top;    add    a 
weighed  amount  of  paraffin  and  a  cake  will  form;  then  dry 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  159 

with  blotting  paper ;  weigh,  subtract  the  weight  of  the  par- 
affin, and  divide  by  the  total  weight  of  soap  used,  as  shown  in 
the  following  formula,  viz : 

Soap  used 5 

Paraffin 8 

Weight  of  cake  after  drying 11 

Deduct  paraffin 8 

Fatty  acid 3 

3 

—  =  60  per  cent  fatty  acid. 
5 

The  determination  of  the  fatty  acid  in  soap  is  the  analyst's 
work. 

To  determine  whether  a  sample  of  soap  contains  a  free 
alkali  or  not,  drop  an  alcoholic  solution  of  phenolphthalein  on 
a  freshly  cut  surface  of  the  soap.  If  the  sample  contains  free 
alkali,  a  red  color  will  be  produced,  the  intensity  of  which 
will  be  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  alkali  present. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  exact  composition  of  soap, 
and  consequently  its  value,  otherwise  than  by  analysis.  For 
many  purposes  it  is  sufficient  to  ascertain  the  proportions  of 
water,  fatty  acids,  and  alkali,  while  for  others  a  full  analysis 
is  desirable. 

The  main  points  to  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  soap 
are  the  following:  1st,  the  nature  of  the  fatty  ingredients, 
and  whether  they  are  pure,  clean,  and  unobjectionable;  2d, 
the  amount  of  water;  3d,  the  amount  of  resin;  4th,  the 
amount  of  free  alkali. 

SOAPS,  TOILET. 

Toilet  soaps  should  be  made  of  fine  materials,  with  great 
care.  They  are  sometimes  scented  or  perfumed,  and  also 
colored  or  medicated. 

The  fats  used  as  materials  in  making  toilet  soaps  are  tallow 
and  lard,  and  olive,  palm,  and  cocoanut  oils.  Cotton-seed  oil 
is  not  suitable  for  use  as  a  material  for  making  toilet  soaps, 
for  the  reason  that  soaps  made  therefrom  are  liable  to  become 
rancid  and  discolored.  The  alkalies  used  are  soda  and  potash, 
but  generally  soda. 


160  II  LNDBOOK   OF  si  i 

Toilet  soaps  are  classified  as  follows,  with  reaped  to  their 
mode  of  manufacture  or  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made, 
or  both,  viz: 

1.  Cold-process  toilet  soaps. 

2.  Boiled  toilet  soaps. 

3.  Transparent  toilet  soaps. 

Cold-process  toilet  soaps  are  the  poorest  in  quality,  because 
they  retain  whatever  impurities  there  were  in  the  ingredients, 
and  because,  in  order  to  insure  complete  saponification  of  the 
fatty-acid  ingredient  and  thereby  prevent  rancidity,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  an  excess  of  the  alkali  ingredient,  which, 
remaining  in  the  soap  as  an  admixture,  is  injurious  to  the 
skin  of  the  user,  although  it  be  disguised  by  the  glycerin,  all 
of  which  is  retained  by  the  soap.  Cocoanut  oil  is  the  sole  or 
chief  fatty  acid  used  in  making  cold-process  toilet  soaps, 
because  it  is  readily  saponifiable  at  low  temperature,  and 
because  soda,  soap  made  therefrom  is  very  hard,  even  when  it 
contains  as  much  as  75  per  cent  of  water.  The  better  grades 
of  cold-process  toilet  soaps  are  made  from  a  mixture  of  fats 
consisting  of  a  large  proportion  of  cocoanut  oil  and  a  small 
proportion  of  tallow  or  lard,  and  a  mixture  of  alkalies  con- 
sisting of  a  large  proportion  of  potash.  Cold-process  toilel 
soap  of  good  quality  is  almost  transparent  at  the  edges  of  the 
cakes  and  does  not  taste  of  alkali. 

The  materials  used  in  making  transparent  toilet  soap  are 
tallow,  cocoanut  oil,  castor  oil,  stearin,  alcohol  of  from  90  to 
95  per  cent  proof ,  glycerin,  sugar,  and  water. 

The  quality  of  transparency  which  characterizes  these  soaps, 
and  to  which  they  owe  their  beauty,  is  due  solely  to  their 
alcohol  ingredient,  and  is  not,  therefore,  indicative  of  purity 
or  value.  Transparent  toilet  soaps  containing  glycerin  owe 
their  special  value  to  the  fact  that  they  lather  rather  freely, 

and  have  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  skin  of  the  user. 

Nearly  all  shaving  soaps  contain  cocoanut  oil,  while  the 
alkali  ingredient  is  a  mixture  of  from  one-half  to  two-thirds 
soda,  and  the  balance  potash.     The  potash  renders  the  soaps 

softer  and  more  readily  soluble  in   water  than   if  the  alkali 
ingredient    were   soda    alone.      Shaving   soaps   are    not    salted 

out,  but  are  made  like  cold-process  soaps  "i-  transparent  soaps. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  161 

In  the  manufacture  of  boiled  toilet  soaps,  which  are  the 
best,  "  stock  soaps, "  i.  e.,  bulk  soaps  to  be  worked  over  and 
transformed  into  finished  toilet  soaps,  are  first  made.  The 
manufacture  of  stock  soaps  is  divided  into  four  operations,  as 
follows,  viz: 

1;  Saponification  or  ''killing  the  stock"  and  ''boiling 
smooth. " 

2.  "Breaking  the  soap"  or  "salting  out." 

3.  Boiling  the  soap  upon  strong  lye  or  "graining." 

4.  "Pitching"  and  "drawing  off  the  nigre." 

Having  prepared  the  various  stock  soaps,  the  next  step  is  to 
convert  them  into  finished  toilet  soaps,  which  consists  of  six 
operations,  as  follows,  viz : 

1 .  "  Cutting  "or  "  shaving. ' ' 

2.  ' '  Milling  the  shavings, "  in  order  to  thoroughly  mix  them 
with  the  perfume,  coloring  matter,  or  medicine,  if  used. 

3.  "Plodding"  or  pressing  the  milled  soap  into  bars  of  the 
desired  form. 

4.  Gutting  the  bars  into  cakes. 

5.  ' '  Warming  "  or  drying  the  cakes. 

6.  Pressing  the  cakes  between  dies. 

Toilet  soaps  are  generally  j>acked  for  the  trade  in  cartons 
containing  three  cakes  each,  twelve  or  twenty-four  cartons  to 
the  case. 

SOUPS,  CANNED. 

The  bases  for  most  soups  are  "soup  stocks." 

To  Make  Beef  Soup  Stock.  —Pieces  of  lean  beef,  cut  into 
convenient  sizes,  are  put  into  a  galvanized -iron  tank  and  boiled 
until  the  juice  is  extracted  therefrom ;  the  tissues  and  foreign 
matter  rise  to  the  top  and  are  skimmed  off ;  and  the  remain- 
ing liquid  is  drawn  off  into  another  tank,  where  it  is  boiled 
down  to  the  consistency  required  for  making  the  particular 
kind  of  soup  desired. 

Chicken  Soup. — Chicken  soup  is  made  from  beef  soup  stock, 
to  which,  after  being  drawn  off  into  copper  kettles,  chopped 
chicken,  rice,  chopped  vegetables,  and  seasoning  are  added. 
The  whole  is  then  brought  to  the  boiling  point ;  it  is  then 
drawn  off  into  cans,  sealed  up,  and  processed.     The  cans  are 


162  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   BTOB 

then  labeled  and  packed  into  cases.  If  the  boiling  is  continued 
too  long,  the  meat  and  vegetables  will  be  disintegrated  and 
become  tasteless.     Canned  soups  should  not  be  highly 

soned,  as  seasoning  is  a  matter  of  taste  and  can  bette 
ulated  when  the  soup  is  served. 
Mock-Turtle  Soup. — Mock-turtlesoup  is  made  from  cah 

head  soup  stock,  which  is  made  as  described  for  beet  soup 
stock,  except  that  calves'  head,  instead  of  beef,  is  used;  it  is 
then  drawn  off  into  copper  kettles  and  pieces  of  calves5  head 
and  veal  and  the  seasoning  added,  and  the  whole  brought  to 
the  boiling  point  and  then  canned,  as  described  for  chicken 
soup. 

Ox-tail  Soup. — Ox-tail  soup  is  made  from  ox-tail  soup 
stock,  as  its  name  indicates.  Oxtail  soup  stock  is  made  as 
described  for  beef  soup  stock,  except  that  ox  tail  is  used  instead 
of  beef,  and  when  boiled  down  to  a  proper  consistency  is 
drawn  off  into  a  copper  kettle,  where  pieces  of  ox  tail,  vegeta 
bles,  and  seasoning  are  added,  and  the  whole  brought  to  the 
boiling  point.  Ox-tail  soup  in  which  is  found  pieces  of  bone 
perfectly  bare,  or  meat  in  shreds  or  covered  with  white  specks, 
is  not  desirable,  because  the  px  tail  from  which  the  soup  stock 
was  made  was  not  fresh,  or  because  it  was  not  made  from  ox- 
tail  soup  stock  but  from  beef  soup  stock,  and  that  the  added 
pieces  of  ox  tail  were  cooked  to  pieces  in  order  to  give  the  soup 
a  more  decided  ox-tail  flavor. 

Beef  Soup. — Beef  soup  is  made  from  beef  soup  stock,  as 
described  for  chicken  soup,  small  pieces  of  beef  being  added, 
instead  of  chicken,  to  the  stock  in  the  mixing  kettle. 

Beef  soup  stock  is  generally  preferred  to  ox-tail  soup  stock. 
for  the  following  reasons,  viz:  It  keeps  better,  owing  to  tlie 
fact  that  it  is  free  from  the  pieces  of  bone  that  are  found  in 
ox-tail  soup  stock ;  it  is  less  expensive,  requires  less  care  and 
skill  in  manufacture,  is  more  wholesome,  has  a  better  flavor, 
and  is  also  apt  to  be  more  cleanly  prepared,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  ox  tails  are  cut  ofl  at  an  early  stage  of  the  dressing, 
and  generally  do  not  receive  the  attention  that  the  resl  of  the 
beef  does. 

To  inspect  samples  of  canned  soup  the  cans  are  opened  and 
their  contents  lested  for  odor  and  flavor  al  once,  before  they 


HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  163 

are  dissipated ;  the  contents  arc  then  poured  out  and  the  condi- 
tion of  "both  the  liquid  and  solid  portions  examined.  If  the 
liquid  portion  is  very  greasy,  it  indicates  that  the  soup  stock 
was  not  carefully  skimmed.  The  solid  portion  or  meat  should 
be  firm  and  have  a  fresh-  taste  or  odor;  and  if  it  is  mushy  or 
shreddy,  it  indicates  that  the  soup  has  been  cooked  too  long, 
or  that  disintegration,  from  age,  has  set  in. 

The  spoiling  of  the  contents  of  a  can  from  any  cause,  will, 
in  time,  cause  the  swelling  of  the  can,  and  care  should  he 
exercised  so  as  not  to  receive  "swells"  or  leaky  cans  on  con- 
tracts. The  quart  can  is  a  commercial  size,  and  is  convenient 
for  Army  use. 

Canned  soups  should  be  kept  in  a  uniformly  cool  place. 

SOUPS,  COMPRESSED. 

Compressed  Soups. — Various  products  are  in  the  market 
under  this  general  term.  The  necessary  ingredients  to  form 
a  stock  for  the  character  of  soup  intended  are  first  desiccated 
and  then  compressed  by  great  pressure  into  tablets  or  cylin- 
ders of  about  4  ounces  each,  from  which,  by  the  addition  of 
water  and  by  following  the  directions  accompanying  the  pack- 
age, a  nutritious  and  palatable  soup  may  be  readily  produced 
with  little  trouble. 

The  tablets  are  generally  covered  with  tin  foil  or  parchment 
paper  for  protection  from  moisture. 

Almost  all  kinds  of  vegetables  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  soups.  Those  most  generally  used  by  troops  are  made  from 
pea  meal  or  bean  meal. 

Each  manufacturer  has  a  different  formula.  Some  add 
extract  of  beef,  others  shredded  beef  or  fat,  etc.,  with  such 
seasoning  as  they  may  deen  necessary. 

The  famous  "Erbswurst"  used  by  the  German  Army  was 
made  in  the  following  proportions : 

Lbs. 

Peas,  ground 60 

Fat 14>/ 

Salt 4 

Pepper,  black % 

Mint 34 


164  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

The  ingredients  should  be  of  the  very  best  quality,  perfectly 

fresh,  carefully  selected,  and  great  rave  should  be  taken  in 
their  mixture.  They  should,  with  ordinary  care,  last  for  at 
least  two  years. 

The  preserving  of  the  vegetable  is  a  very  simple  matter. 
The  vegetables  to  he  preserved  should  be  well  grown,  bul 
hard  or  stringy;  only  really  good  vegetables  should  be  used. 

From  information  obtained  in  regard  to  preserving  \ 
tables  it  is  found  that  2,425  pounds  of  fresh  vegetables  \ 
199  pounds  and  12  ounces  dried  vegetables,  or  about  l\r 

From  more  extended  experiments  it  is  found  that  4,000 
pounds  fresh  vegetables  yield  320  pounds  dried  vegetables,  or 
rather  over  ^. 

Therefore  it  is  safe  to  estimate  that  twelve  pounds  0f  fresh 
vegetables  will  produce  one  pound  of  dried  vegetables,  three 
and  a  half  to  four  ounces  of  which  will  give  one  pound  when 
cooked,  and  are  thus  the  equivalent  of  the  ration  of  fresh 
vegetables. 

STARCH. 

Starch  is  a  granulated  substance  of  organic  origin  which, 
when  dry,  has  the  appearance  of  a  white,  glistening  powder, 
without  marked  taste  or  smell,  and  which  gives  a  peculiar 
sound  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers.  It  is  composed,  by 
weight,  of  six  parts  of  carbon  and  ten  parts  of  hydrogen 
and  belongs  to  that  important  group  of  carbon  compounds 
known  as  Carbohydrates,  to  which  also  belong  sucrose  or  cane 
sugar,  glucose  or  grape  sugar,  cellulose  or  woody  fiber,  and 
dextrin  or  gum.  It  is  found  everywhere  in  tin1  vegetable 
kingdom  in  large  quantities,  and  particularly  in  all  kinds  of 
grain,  as  maize  or  Indian  corn,  wheat,  etc.  :  in  tubers.  ;is  pota 
toes,  aiTOWTOOt,  etc.;  and  in   fruits,  as  chest  nut  s.  acorns,  etc 

In  this  country  starch  is  made  chiefly  from  maize  or  Indian 
corn,  which  is  abundant  and  cheap;  and  in  Europe,  from 
potatoes. 

Starch  is  used  as  a  food  and  also  in  the  arts  ;is  a  material 
for  making  stiffening  for  cloth. 

Starch  destined  for  use  ;is  food  is,  in  this  count  ry.  always 
made  from  Indian  corn,  by  the  sweet  process,  and  is  called 
"Cornstarch,"  in  contradistinction  to  starch  destined  for   use 


HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  165 

in  the  arts,  which  is  called  "Laundry  Starch,"  which  may  be 
made  of  other  materials  than  Indian  corn  and  by  other  pro- 
cesses than  the  sweet  process. 

To  Make  Cornstarch. — Yellow  Indian  corn  is  generally 
used  as  the  material  for  making  cornstarch,  and.  as  above 
stated,  this  kind  of  starch  is  always  made  by  the  sweet  pro- 
cess. The  corn  is  ground  into  fine  meal,  which  is  run  into 
deep  vats,  with  plenty  of  pure  water,  and  kept  stirred  by 
revolving  rakes.  The  stirring  is  constantly  kept  up  for  from 
nine  to  ten  days,  so  as  to  remove  all  foreign  matter.  After 
this  extensive  washing  of  the  fine  meal,  the  resulting  starch 
is  allowed  to  settle  into  molds,  and  when  dry  enough  is 
ground  very  fine  and  put  up  in  1 -pound  papers,  and  is  usually 
packed  in  cases  containing  forty  1 -pound  papers. 

To  Make  Laundry  Starch. — Laundry  starch  is  manu- 
factured by  two  processes,  one  of  which  is  known  as  the  s<  >ur 
or  fermentation  process,  and  the  other  as  the  sweet  process. 
In  the  sour  process,  yellow  Indian  corn  is  the  material  gen 
erally  used.  It  is  ground  into  fine  meal,  then  run  into  a 
mash  tub  and  allowed  to  ferment  into  a  soar  mash  ;  from  the 
mash  tub  it  is  pumped  to  the  bleaching  floor,  where  it  is 
thoroughly  washed  and  cleaned  from  gluten  and  all  impuri- 
ties. The  fluid  containing  the  starch  in  suspension  is  allowed 
to  run  into  long  troughs  with  perforated  bottoms  and  the 
water  drained  off,  leaving  the  starch  in  the  boxes  or  molds. 
As  soon  as  the  starch  is  dry  enough  to  handle,  it  is  cut  into 
cubes  and  taken  to  the  drying  kiln,  where  all  of  the  rest  of 
the  water  is  driven  off.  The  cubes  are  broken  up  and  packed, 
•  •it her  in  bulk  in  boxes  or  in  1-pound  i>ackages,  forty  1-pound 
packages  to  the  case. 

In  the  sweet  process  the  mash  is  not  allowed  to  ferment,  but 
is  run  into  deep  vats,  with  plenty  of  pure  water,  and  kept 
stirred  by  revolving  rakes  during  the  day,  for  five  or  six  days, 
and  allowed  to  settle  at  night;  the  scum  of  impurities  that 
rises  to  the  top  during  the  night  is  removed  in  the  morning. 
After  this  extended  washing  of  the  mash,  the  resulting  starch 
is  settled  in  molds  and  dried,  as  in  the  sour  i>rocess. 


1C>C>  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STOB 

The  greater  part  of  the  laundry  starch  produced  is  made 

by  the  sweet  process.  In  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  the 
sour-process  starch,  which  has  a  sour  smell  and  sometimes  .1 
sour  taste. 

Laundry  starch  is  also  made  by  what  is  called  the  chemical 
process.  The  corn,  before  being  crushed,  is  treated  with  a 
solution  of  caustic  soda- or  hydrochloric  acid  until  the  gluten  is 
dissolved  out,  after  which  it  is  crushed,  washed,  and  dried  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  in  the  other  processes. 

It  is  packed  in  bulk  in  boxes  containing  forty  pounds,  or  in 
1 -pound  packages,  forty  1 -pound  packages  to  the  c.i 

SUGAR. 

The  word  sugar  is  probably  of  Sanscrit  origin.  It  is  used 
to  designate  a  class  of  substances  possessing  a  sweet  taste. 
and  capable  of  breaking  up  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide 
under  the  influence  of  ferments,  such  as  yeast. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  sugar  known  to  chemists,  only  two 
are  of  importance  to  domestic  economy,  viz,  cane  sugar  or 
sucrose  and  grape  sugar  or  glucose. 

Cane  sugar  is  so  called  because  it  is  obtained  principally 
from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  or  Saccharum  offieinarum, 
a  plant  of  the  order  Graminece  or  grass  family. 

The  sugar-cane  plant  is  probably  a  native  of  Southeastern 
Asia,  but  it  is  not  known  to  grow  anywhere  now  in  the  wild 
state.  It  is  cultivated  very  generally  in  all  tropical  and  sub 
tropical  countries.  It  grows  best,  however,  where  the  aver 
age  temperature  is  from  75  to  85  F.,  but  it  is  grown  in  much 
cooler  climates,  even  in  those  where  the  average  temperature 
is  from  60  to  65°  F.  It  is  extensively  grown  in  Louisiana. 
the  West  India  Islands,  (  Vntral  America,  and  along  the  entire 
coast  of  Northern  South  America.  It  is  scarcely  grown  in 
Southern  Europe,  but  is  grown  extensively  throughout  large 
portions  of  Asia  and  the  Easl   India  Islands. 

Sugar-cane  sugar  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  historic 
times,  and  some  early  writers  speak  of  it  as  "honey  made 
from  reeds  without  bees."  Although  it  was  known  to  the 
ancients,  it  seems  that  it  was  not  used  by  them  to  any  con- 
siderable extent,  and  that,  until  quite  modern  times,  honey 
served  the  people  of  the  world  as  fcheir  only  saccharine  food. 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  1(>7 

Sucrose  or  cane  sugar,  while  most  extensively  produced 
from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane,  is  also  produced  from  the 
juice  of  the  sugar  beet  (Beta  vulgaris),  the  sap  of  the  sugar 
maple  (Acer  saccharin  urn ) ,  and  from  the.sap  of  several  species 
of  palm.  The  process  of  manufacture  from  these  juices  or 
saps  is  essentially  the  same  in  all  cases. 

Sugar  cane  is  the  source  of  about  40  per  cent  of  the  sugar 
product  of  the  world. 

To  Make  Sugar  from  Sugar  Cane.  —To  make  sugar  from 
sugar  cane,  the  canes  are  cut  down  and  trimmed  of  their 
leaves  and  tops  and  hauled  to  the  mill.  The  mill  consists  of 
three  horizontal  iron  rollers,  one  being  placed  above  and  in 
close  proximity  to  the  other  two.  The  canes  are  fed  to  the 
mill  between  the  upper  roll  and  one  of  the  lower  rolls,  and 
from  these  pass  automatically  between  the  upper  roll  and 
the  other  lower  roll.  The  mill  is  generally  run  by  steam 
power.  Its  action  is  to  crush  the  canes  and  extract  therefrom 
the  juice.  The  pressed  canes  are  called  bagasse,  and  are  dried 
and  used  for  fuel.  The  juice  as  it  comes  from  the  mill  is  a 
yellowish-green  liquid,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  from  1.07 
to  1.09,  and  usually  contains  from  18  to  20  per  cent  of  sugar, 
together  with  a  small  quantity  of  albumen,  fragments  of  cane, 
and  other  impurities.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  impurities, 
the  juice  is  very  liable  to  ferment  if  allowed  to  stand,  even 
for  only  a  few  minutes,  and  to  prevent  fermentation  the 
juice  is  at  once  passed  from  the  mill,  through  strainers,  into 
iron  or  copper  kettles  holding  several  hundred  gallons,  where 
it  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  from  100°  to  150°  F.,  when 
there  is  added  to  it  a  quantity  of  slaked  lime,  after  which  it 
is  brought  nearly  to  the  boiling  point.  The  albumen  is  coagu- 
lated by  the  heat,  and  rises,  with  the  other  impurities,  to  the 
surface  as  a  dense  scum,  which  is  carefully  removed,  after 
which  the  juice  is  ready  for  evaporation. 

The  purified  juice  is  transferred  to  vacuum  pans  and  boiled 
until  it  is  sufficiently  concentrated,  when  it  is  run  off  into 
large  open  pans  to  crystallize.  The  crystals  which  form  from 
the  sirup  agglutinate  into  a  solid  mass,  and  are  known  as  raw 
or  muscovado  sugar.    The  residuum  or  non-crystallized  portion 


168  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

is  known  as  molasses.  The  old  West  India  or  New  Orleans 
molasses,  which  made  such  good  gingerbread,  was  of  tins 
type  and  was  somewhat  acid,  owing  to  the  presence  of  acetic 
and  formic  acids. 

The  separation  from  the  crystallized  sugar  of  the  mola 
or  sirup  is  now  effected  by  machines  called  centrifugals, 
which  accomplish  in  a  few  minutes  what  previously  took  days. 
A  centrifugal,  which  is  essentially  a  press  and  a  strainer  com 
bined,  consists  of  a  finely  perforated  sheet-metal  revolving 
cylinder  mounted  on  a  vertical  shaft,  within  a  fixed  concentric, 
imperforated  sheet-metal  drum.  The  solid  raw  <  >r  muscovado 
sugar  is  first  cut  by  a  machine  into  small  pieces  of  uniform 
size,  and  in  this  form  is  put  into  the  revolving  cylinder,  and 
the  latter  started  up  and  run  at  a  speed  of  from  1,000  to  2,000 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  centrifugal  force  generated  in 
the  cut-up  raw  sugar  by  its  rotation  in  the  revolving  cylinder 
of  the  centrifugal  causes  it  to  rise  up  from  the  bottom  and 
form  a  stratum  of  uniform  thickness  on  the  inside  of  it,  under 
a  very  strong  pressure,  which  drives  the  molasses  out  through 
the  perforations  into  the  surrounding  drum.  To  complete 
the  process,  a  very  small  quantity  of  water  is  thrown  into  the 
revolving  cylinder  to  wash  the  sugar.  The  machine  is  then 
stopped  and  the  sugar  scraped  out. 

The  raw  sugar,  after  the  molasses  has  been  extracted,  is 
sent  to  the  refineries  to  be  made  into  the  different  styles  of 
white  sugar,  viz,  loaf,  cut  loaf,  cube,  crushed,  granulated, 
and  powdered. 

To  Make  Sucrose  or  Cam-:  Sugar   from    Beets.— More 

than  one  half  (60  per  cent  )  of  the  sugar  made  in  the  world  is 
obtained  from  the  sugar  beet  (Beta  vulgaris),  of  which  there 
are  several  varieties  cultivated,  the  more  important  being  the 
Silesian,  the  French  Vilmorin,  the  Siberian,  and  the  Imperial. 
Sugar  beets  sometimes  contain  as  much  as  10  or  19  per  cent 
of  sucrose  or  cane  sugar.      They  were  first    used    for  the  pro 

duction  of  sugar  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
Now,  they  are  the  source  of  nearly  all  the  sugar  made  in 
Continental  Europe. 

The  method  of  making  sugar  from  beets  does  no1  differ 
very   greatly    from    that    <>f    making  sugar  from   sugar  cane. 


HANDBOOK    OF   SUBSISTENCE 


OP  THK 

CJNIVERSITY 


The  beet  roots  are  first  washed  in  an  open  revolving  cylinder, 
placed  beneath  water.  The  juice  is  then  extracted,  several 
different  processes  being  used  for  the  purpose,  the  more  com- 
mon being  to  rasp  the  beets  to  a  fine  pulp  in  a  machine,  con- 
sisting essentially  of  a  large  rotating  drum,  having  its  sur- 
f  acethickly  set  with  iron  teeth.  The  rasped  pulp  i  s  then  placed 
in  sacks  and  the  juice  expressed  by  means  of  a  hydraulic 
press.  By  this  process  from  80  to  85  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  beet  is  extracted  as  juice.  Good  beets  contain  9(>  per 
cent  of  juice,  of  which  12  per  cent  is  cane  sugar.  The  juice 
is  sometimes  extracted  by  centrifugals,  and  sometimes  by 
repeated  washings  and  maceration  in  cold  water.  A  process 
of  maceration  in  cold  water,  called  the  "  diffusion  "  process, 
in  which  the  beets  are  sliced  into  thin  shavings  and  exposed 
to  the  action  of  water  for  several  hours,  is  sometimes  also 
employed.  The  juice,  after  extraction,  is  purified  by  boiling 
it  with  lime;  then  filtering  it  through  bag  and  bone-black 
filters;  and  afterwards  concentrating  it  to  the  crystallizing 
point  in  vacuum  pans.  The  process  of  refining  raw  beet 
sugar  is  practically  the  same  as  that  for  refining  raw  sugar- 
cane sugar,  and  the  refined  product  of  the  former  can  not  be 
distinguished  from  the  refined  product  of  the  latter. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  beets  has  been  tried  to 
some  extent  in  this  country,  but  without  any  great  success, 
except  in  Nebraska,  California,  and  Utah.  The  molasses 
from  beet  sugar  is  mostly  used  for  making  whisky,  as  it  has 
a  very  unpleasant  flavor  and  is  not  suitable  for  food. 

Maple  Sugar. — In  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
sugar  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple  and  other 
allied  species.  The  sugar  is  sucrose  or  cane  sugar,  but 
accompanying  substances  in  the  sap,  which  are  retained  in 
the  raw  sugar,  give  it  quite  a  peculiar  and  agreeable  flavor, 
to  which  it  owes  its  special  value.  The  refining  of  maple 
sugar  destroys  its  maple  flavor  and  converts  it  into  ordinary 
cane  sugar. 

Sorghum. — Chinese  sugar  grass  or  sugar  millet  {Sorghum 
saccharatum) ,  has  been  cultivated  in  this  country  with  some 
success.     It  seems  to  be  suited  to  a  temperate  zone,  and  is 

339 — 22 


170  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

thus  intermediate  between  the  maple  and  beel  of  the  North 

and  the  sugar  cane  of  the  South. 

Grape  Sugar  or  Glucose.— Grape  sugar,  so  called  from 
the  abundance  thereof  in  that  fruit  (from  10  to  15  per  cent ). 
is  found  in  a  great  variety  of  fruits.  The  sirup  may  be 
refined  and  crystallized,  as  in  the  case  of  cane  sugar,  but  ii 
crystallizes  with  difficulty,  and  is  apt  to  absorb  moisture  and 
become  moist.  It  is  too  costly  for  ordinary  use.  11  is  glu 
cose,  and  all  forms  of  starch  can  be  converted  into  com- 
mercial glucose. 

Glucose  is  one  and  one-half  times  less  soluble  than  sua 
as  it  requires  one  and  a  third  times  its  weight  of  cold  water 
to  dissolve  it.  It  requires  two  and  a  half  times  more  grape 
than  cane  sugar  to  sweeten  a  given  volume  of  water  to  the 
same  degree;  hence,  while  grape  sugar  (glucose)  is  nominally 
cheaper  than  cane  sugar  (sucrose),  it  is  not  as  valuable,  pound 
for  pound,  as  a  sweetener. 

Glucose  as  it  is  usually  sold  contains  about  20  per  cent  of 
water  and  about  20  per  cent  of  unfermented  substances, 
leaving  only  00  per  cent  of  sugar — the  sugar,  however,  some- 
times runs  as  high  as  75  per  cent. 

The  process  of  making  glucose1  or  grape  sugar  from  starch 
consists  (1)  in  separating  the  starch  from  the  corn  by  soab 
ing,  grinding,  straining,  and  settling;  and  (2)  in  converting 
the  starch  into  sugar  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
this  acid  subsequently  being  removed  by  the  action  of  chalk. 
To  make  solid  grape  sugar,  the  conversion  is  carried  further 
than  it  is  in  making  liquid  glucose.  After  clarifying,  the 
liquid  is  concentrated  in  vacuum  pans,  and  is  decolorized 
with  bone  black. 

All  woody  fiber  or  cellulose  can  be  so  acted  upon  by  certain 
acids  as  to  form  glucose;  hence  sawdust,  cotton,  etc.,  can  be 
converted  info  glucose,  from  which  originated  the  storie8 
about  old  rags,  old  shirts,  etc.,  being  used  to  make  sugar. 

Grape  sugar  represents  one  of  the  two  principal  classe 
commercial  sugar  and  cane  sugar  the  other,  the  former  being 
obtained  naturally   from   the  grape  and    the  latter  from  the 
cane  and  the  beet.     Grape  sugar,  which  is  a  term  chemically 
synonymous  with  dextrose  and   glucose,  has  about  two-thirds 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  171 

the  sweetening  power  of  cane  sugar  or  sucrose.  When  treated 
with  dilute  acids,  both  cane  sugar  and  starch  yield  dextrose. 
In  the  case  of  starch,  however,  dextrose  constitutes  the  sole 
final  product. 

Adulteration. — Under  the  direction  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  the  chief  chemist  of  that  Department  has  made 
searching  investigations  into  the  manipulations  and  adultera- 
tions of  sugar.     In  his  report  for  1892  he  says: 

' '  The  total  absence  of  any  added  matters  to  the  sugars  of 
commerce  is  plainly  shown  by  the  five  hundred  analyses  of 
samples  purchased  in  open  market  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  The  low  price  of  cane  sugar,  however,  has  hereto- 
fore prevented  the  profitable  adulteration  of  cane  sugar  with 
any  article  made  from  starch  or  terra  alba,  at  least  in  so  far 
as  the  limited  examination  of  them  extended.  The  chief 
adulterant  of  low-grade  sugars,  if  it  can  properly  be  so  called, 
is  water.  The  question  of  the  use  of  these  sugars  is  one  of 
economy  only,  for  they  are  certainly  not  injurious  to  health. 
Such  sugar  cakes  on  standing  long.  White  and  yellow  sugars 
usually  receive  a  special  treatment,  either  in  the  vacuum  pan 
or  the  centrifugal,  in  order  to  prevent  a  gray,  'dead'  appear- 
ance. In  the  case  of  white  sugar  ultramarine  blue  is  the  sub- 
stance usually  employed  for  this  purpose." 

It  is  not  unusual  to  find  sugars  which  have  been  excessively 
blued  and  which,  when  dissolved,  make  a  blue  sirup.  For- 
tunately, ultramarine  is  not  poisonous  and  no  injury  to  health 
can  result  from  its  use. 

The  yellow  clarified  sugar  of  the  plantation  is  always 
treated  with  a  wash  containing  chloride  of  tin,  commercially 
known  as  "tin  crystals."  Those  not  so  treated  soon  after 
leaving  the  centrifugal  lose  their  bright  color.  Such  sugars 
are  only  manufactured  for  refinement  and  are  not  sold  to  con- 
sumers. 

Foreign  matters  being  insoluble  in  water,  tests  therefor  are 
simple,  e.  g.,  if  V  pound  of  sugar  is  dissolved  in  a  pint  of 
water,  a  sediment  will  be  deposited  by  the  solution  if  marble 
dust  or  sand  is  present.  The  skilled  analyst  uses  the  polari- 
scope  or  saccharometer  to  determine  the '  percentage  of  pure 
sugar. 


172  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOK 

To  Refine  Raw  Sugar.— To  refine  raw  sugar  it  is  first  (lis 
solved  in  water  and  the  solution  boiled  with  white  of  egg  or 
serum  of  blood,  to  purify  it.  Formerly  chemicals,  such  as 
the  salts  of  tin,  were  sometimes  used,  but  metallic  .-alls  are 
not  now  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  boiling  separates  all 
the  gum,  albumen,  etc.,  from  the  solution,  and,  after  filtering, 
it  is  clear.  It  is  finally  filtered  through  hone  black  to  remove 
the  coloring  matter.  The  solution  is  then  conveyed  to  vacuum 
pans,  where,  at  a  temperature  of  from  130  to  L50  F.,  it  is 
evaporated  until  it  is  concentrated  to  such  a  degree  that,  when 
removed  and  cooled,  it  will  at  once  crystallize  into  solid  sugar. 
A  part  of  the  sugar  is  rendered  non-crystallizable  by  the  heat 
of  this  last  boiling,  and  is  the  residuum  of  the  process.  This 
residuum  is  called  cane  sirup  (see  Sirup,  cane). 

The  concentrated  sirup  is  then  drawn  from  the  vacuum 
pans  into  the  agitators,  and  thence,  when  it  has  partly  cooled 
and  become  semi-solid  sugar,  into  the  molds.  The  molds  are 
cone-shaped  and  have  small  openings  at  the  small  ends,  which 
are  closed  by  plugs  when  the  semi -solid  sugar  is  run  into  them, 
but  when  the  sugar  is  cooled  and  hardened  the  plugs  are 
withdrawn  and  the  cones  are  set  over  iron  pots  to  drain. 
When  the  mother  liquor,  called  "first  greens, "  has  ceased  to 
run  from  the  molds,  the  top  of  the  loaf  is  cut  smooth  and  a 
quantity  of  pure  solution  of  sugar,  called  "white  liquor,"  is 
poured  over  it,  which  washes  out  the  last  trace  of  mother 
liquor  and  leaves  the  loaf  perfectly  white.  When  it  has 
entirely  ceased  to  drain  the  loaf  is  removed  from  the  mold 
and  the  damp  tip  broken  off.  The  subsequent  treatment 
depends  upon  the  condition  in  which  it  is  to  be  marketed.  If  it 
is  to  be  marketed  as  loaf  sugar  the  loaves  are  first  placed  in 
rubber  sockets  connected  with  an  air  pump  and  exhausted  of 
the  remaining  liquid,  and  then  placed  in  lathes  and  turned 
smooth,  when  they  are  ready  for  market. 

For  the  production  of  "A"  sugar  the  loaves,  while  stiil 
moist,  are  placed  in  cutting  machines  and  shaved  line.  This 
shaved  sugar  is  sometimes  carefully  dried  and  sifted;  the 
portion  separated  by  sifting  is  powdered  sugar,  and  the  po- 
tion remaining  is  sieve  grannlated.  The  loaves  are,  at  other 
times,  dried  in  hot-air  chambers  and  then  broken  in  crashing 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  173 

machines,  and  the  product  separated  by  sieves  into  coarse 
crushed  sugar  and  powdered  Bugar. 

The  dried  loaves  are  also  sometimes  cut  into  cubes  by 
machines,  and  these  are  known  as  cut-loaf  sugar. 

The  mother  liquor  or  first  greens,  which  has  drained  from 
the  molds,  is  diluted,  * '  blown  up, "  i,  e. ,  boiled,  filtered  through 
the  bag  filters  and  the  bone-black  filters,  and  again  concen- 
trated in  the  vacuum  pans.  From  the  vacuum  pans  it  is 
drawn  off  into  the  agitators,  from  which  it  may  be  either  put 
into  molds,  or  into  the  centrifugals  to  remove  the  mother 
liquor,  known  as  "second  greens."  The  sugar  thus  obtained 
is  of  a  light-buff  color,  and  is  called  "C"  sugar. 

The  second  greens  are  again  subjected  to  purification  by 
filters,  evaporated  in  the  vacuum  pans,  and  transferred  to  the 
centrifugals.  The  centrifugals  extract  the  mother  liquor, 
known  as  "green  sirup,"  and  leave  a  dark-colored  sugar, 
which  is  sold  as  "X"  or  yellow  sugar.  The  green  sirup  is 
again  diluted,  blown  up,  and  filtered,  and  concentrated  to  a 
proper  consistency,  when  it  is  sold  as  "golden  sirup." 

Loaf,  "A, "  and  other  white  sugars  contain,  when  dry,  100  per 
cent  of  sucrose;  "C,"  usually  from  85  to  87  per  cent;  and 
yellow,  from  80  to  83  per  cent. 

The  details  of  the  process  of  refining  sugar  vary  considerably 
in  different  refineries ;  and  the  quality  of  the  above  grades  of 
sugar,  as  produced  by  the  different  refineries,  will  vary  on 
this  account,  and,  also,  on  account  of  the  differences  in  variety 
of  the  raw  sugar  from  which  they  are  obtained,  and  a  further 
gradation  of  commercial  sugar  is  consequently  used.  In 
this  country  the  grades  usually  named  are  "Standard  A," 
"Off  A,"  "White  Extra  C,"  "Yellow  C,"  "Yellow,"  and 
"Brown."  The  Dutch  standards  are  simply  an  arbitrary 
scries  of  numbered  raw  sugars,  selected  in  Holland,  and  in 
general  use  as  standards. 

With  the  improved  process  of  boiling  in  vacuum  pans  the 
old  molasses  has  almost  disappeared  and  sirups  have  become 
more  costly.  Much  of  the  old-time  molasses  went  to  the  dis- 
tilleries to  be  made  into  rum.  The  grades  of  sugar  have  also 
changed  very  much.  The  dark-brown  sugars  have  almost 
disappeared  from  the  market.     This  is  owing  to  the  improved 


174  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

methods  of  boiling.  The  granulated  sugar  is  of  the  same 
quality  as  the  loaf,  cut-loaf,  cube,  and  crushed,  and  differs 
from  them  only  in  that  its  crystals  do  not  cohere,  because  the 
concentrated  sirup  is  constantly  stirred  during  the  process  of 
crystallization.  The  light-brown  sugars  are  the  next  product, 
containing  some  molasses,  and,  therefore,  they  taste  sweeter, 
because  the  sweet  taste  is  more  pronounced  in  the  colored 
portion  of  the  mother  liquor  or  molasses  which  they  retain. 

If  granulated  sugar  is  not  quite  freed  from  the  mother 
liquor  or  sirup  it  has  a  more  decidedly  sweet  taste  than 
where  perfectly  pure,  i.  e.,  it  has  more  the  taste  which  we 
are  accustomed  to  associate  with  sugar. 

It  is  often  said  that  powdered  sugar  is  adulterated,  and  that 
it  is  not  as  sweet  as  loaf  sugar,,  but  such  is  not  the  case,  and 
some  explanation  must  besought.  The  reason  seems  to  be 
twofold:  First,  a  spoonful  of  powdered  sugar,  because  of  its 
less  density,  does  not  weigh  as  much  as  a  spoonful  of  granu- 
lated; and  second,  since  sweetness  is  a  physical  property,  the 
physical  condition  of  fineness  of  division  has  something  to  do 
with  it — the  coarser  grains  seeming  to  excite  in  the  nerves  of 
taste  a  stronger  vibration,  so  to  speak,  in  dissolving  than  do 
the  finer  particles. 

Uses  of  Sugar.— Taking  the  world  as  a  whole,  it  might  be 
said  that  sugar  has  been  used  as  a  condiment  rattier  than 
food,  but,  in  the  light  of  recent  statistics,  it  seems  to  bea  very 
important  article  of  diet,  and  it  should  be  so  considered.  In 
cold  countries  sugar  seems  to  be  taking  the  place  of  oil  as  a 
heal  giving  food.  That  it  plays  the  part  of  a  heal  giving  food 
is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  not  craved  to  so  great  an 
extent  in  summer  as  in  winter.  There  seems  t<>  be  a  growing 
opinion  in  favor  of  its  moderate  use.  It  is  true  that,  if  the 
stomach  is  not  able  to  digest  it  at  once,  it  is  liable  to  change 
into  lactic  acid,  instead  of  being  absorbed  into  the  system  ; 
but  this  only  shows  that  sugar  is  not  suitable  for  that  stomach 
at  that  time.  lake  the  use  of  all  other  foods,  the  use  of  sugar 
may  be  abused.  The  very  general  craving  f<«r  sweets  is 
undoubtedly  founded  on  a  natural  demand  of  the  system; 
hence,  a  moderate  use  of  sugar  by  children  is  not  to  be  con- 
demned. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  175 

By-products. — Molasses  is  the  residuuin  of  the  process  of 
making  raw  sugars,  while  sirup  is  the  residuum  of  the  pro- 
cess of  refining  them. 

The  molasses  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  raw'beet 
sugar  and  the  sirup  resulting  from  the  refining  of  it  contain 
so  much  alkaline  matter  as  to  be  unfit  for  food. 

New  Sugar. — The  sugar  of  Cuba  commences  coming  into 
market  in  September,  and  that  of  this  country  in  October. 
Beet  sugar  is  most  largely  manufactured  in  the  fall. 

Packing.  —The  best  method  of  packing  sugar,  where  it  is 
to  stand  any  length  of  time,  is  in  barrels.  Soft,  i.  e. ,  unre- 
fined, sugars,  especially  when  exposed  to  the  air,  get  hard 
more  rapidly  than  granulated.  Refined  sugars  of  all  the 
higher  grades,  such  as  granulated,  cut-loaf,  and  powdered, 
not  having  any  moisture  -  in  them,  can  be  packed  in  bags  as 
long  as  they  are  kept  in  a  dry  place.  Coffee  sugars,  which 
are  the  higher  grades  of  yellow  sugar,  should  always  be  put 
up  in  barrels;  and  unless  there  is  a  great  advantage  to  be 
obtained  in  buying  them  in  large  quantities,  they  should  be 
bought  in  small  quantities,  as  required  for  use,  as  they  dry 
out  and  lose  weight  rapidly.  The  refined  sugars  are  free 
from  water  and  undergo  no  change  in  condition  or  weight  by 
being  kept  on  hand.  All  sugars  should  be  put  up  in  dust- 
proof  packages. 

Inspection. — When  a  lot  of  sugar  is  to  be  inspected  for 
acceptance  under  a  contract,  the  inspector  should  take  with 
him  a  part  of  the  sample  of  sugar  upon  which  the  contract  is 
based,  and  compare  it  with  samples  drawn  from  packages 
belonging  to  the  lot  to  be  inspected.  The  method  of  compar- 
ing samples  of  sugar  most  in  vogue  among  sugar  merchants 
is  to  place  the  samples  of  sugar  alongside  of  each  other  on  a 
piece  of  blue  paper,  and  judge  of  their  quality  by  their 
appearance.  Granulated  sugar  of  a  very  fine  grain  is  gen- 
erally more  desirable  than  that  of  a  coarse  grain.  Standard 
granulated  sugar  has  a  bright,  glossy  appearance,  and  resem- 
bles very  small  pieces  of  glass. 

Saccharin  is  the  trade  name  of  a  product  officially  called 
'  'gluside, "  derived  from  the  toluene  of  coal  tar.     It  occurs  as  a 


L76  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE    BTOB 

white  powder  composed  of  irregular  crystals,  bui  is  usually 
round  in  the  market  in  compressed  tablets  of  1  or  2  grains 
each.  It  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  more  readily 
so  in  boiling  water  or  alcoholic  solutions.  Mixed  with  about 
its  own  weight  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  it  dissolves  freely  in  cold 
water  with  effervescence.  The  sodium  compound  thus  formed 
is  obtained  by  evaporation  and  is  known  as  soluble  saccharin 
or  soluble  gluside.  The  sweetness  of  saccharin  is  similar  to 
that  of  sugar,  but  about  300  times  more  intense.  It  lias  no 
harmful  effect  on  the  human  system,  and  has  been  used  by 
medical  men  for  several  years  as  a  substitute  for  sugar  in  c 
of  diabetes  or  obesity  where  sweets  are  desired  but  sugar  or 
glucose  is  contra-indicated,  Its  commercial  value  at  the 
present  time  (1896)  is  about  $1  per  ounce. 

TEA. 

Tea,  in  the  commercial  sense,  is  the  prepared  leaves  of  the 
Thea  chinensis  (called  Camellia  tit  e<<  by  some  botanists)  m  tea 
plant. 

The  tea  plant  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  from  3  to  6  feet  high, 
with  scattered,  somewhat  leathery,  leaves,  without  stipules. 
The  leaves  are  from  2  to  3  inches  long,  and  from  .',  to  1  inch 
wide,  of  oblong-elliptical  shape,  with  transverse,  penninerved 
veins,  and  are  serrated  on  the  edges,  except  at  the  base. 
They  are  of  a  shining-green  color  and  have  short,  channeled 
foot  stalks. 

The  tea  plant  is  a  native  of  Northern  India.  The  period  of 
its  introduction  into  China,  the  great  tea  producing  country 
of  the  world,  is  unknown,  but  legend  and  tradition  claim  that 
it  was  in  the  year  2787,  B.  C.  History,  however,  makes  no 
mention  of  its  cultivation  in  ( liina,  or  the  use  of  the  infusion 
of  its  leaves  as  a   beverage  by  the  Chinese,  until   the   fourth 

century,  A.  I).     The  tea  plant  was  introduced  into  Japan  from 
China  about  A;  D.  828. 
The  cultivation  of  the  tea  plant  was  commenced  in  Java  in 

1826,  and  is  now  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  island.      In 

L840,  its  cultivation  was  commenced  in  India,  where  it  has 
rapidly  extended.  The  plant  was  first  introduced  into  Ceylon 
about  L800,  but  little  attention  was  paid  to  it  until  L876,  since 
which  time  its  culture  has  developed  with  great  rapidity. 


HANDBOOK   OF   SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  177 

Of  Java,  India,  and  Ceylon  teas,  it  may  be  said  that  but 
small  quantities  are  imported  to  this  country,  and  that  for- 
merly they  were  inferior  in  flavor  and  aroma  and  would  not 
keep  as  well  as  those  from  China  and  Japan.  This  state  of 
affairs,  it  is  claimed,  is  now  changing  for  the  better. 

The  prepared  leaves  of  the  tea  plant  are  generically  classi- 
fied as  "green  tea"  and  "black  tea."  Commercially,  teas  are 
classified  geographically  as  China,  Japan,  India,  Ceylon,  and 
Java  teas ;  and  these  are  subdivided  into  numerous  varieties 
and  grades,  according  to  districts  of  production,  form,  or 
quality. 

There  is  but  one  species  of  tea  plant,  Thea  chinensis,  but 
there  are  two  varieties  or  subspecies,  which  are  distinguished 
as  Thea  viridis  or  the  green  tea  plant,  and  Thea  bohea  or  the 
black  tea  plant.  While  the  greater  portions  of  the  green  and 
black  teas  of  commerce  are  prepared  from  their  corresponding 
botanical  varieties,  they  are  so  prepared  more  from  custom, 
convenience,  or  demand  than  any  other  cause,  as  both  of  the 
teas  of  commerce  can,  with  equal  facility,  be  made  from  the 
leaves  of  either  of  the  botanical  varieties  of  the  plant. 

The  plants  are  raised  from  the  seed,  and,  generally,  the  first 
crop  or  picking  is  made  when  the  plants  are  three  years  old. 
The  plants  are  not  generally  fertilized,  for,  while  it  would 
increase  the  yield,  it  would  spoil  the  flavor  of  the  tea. 

In  the  wild  state  the  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  15  feet,  but 
the  cultivated  plants  are  pruned  down  until  they  are  only 
from  3  to  5  feet  in  height. 

In  China  there  are  three  regular  pickings  in  the  course  of  a 
year.  The  first,  soon  after  April  1,  is  the  Shon-Chuen  or 
"Early  Spring."  This  picking  is  much  the  finest  in  quality 
but  limited  in  quantity,  and  practically  none  of  it  is  exported. 
The  second  picking,  about  May  15,  is  the  Er-Chuen  or 
"Second  Spring."  This  is  the  most  important  crop  and  the 
principal  one  exported.  The  third  picking,  in  July,  is  the 
Shan-Chuen  or  ' '  Third  crop. "  It  is  much  inferior  in  strength, 
flavor,  and  quality  to  the  second  picking,  and  much  of  it  is 
exported  and  used  for  blending  with  the  second  crop.  A 
fourth  gleaning  is  made  in  September,   called   "Old  Tea," 


178  HANDBOOK    OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES. 

which    is    retained    for  home   consumption    by  tli«-   poorer 
classes. 

The  quality  of  tea  depends  upon  exactness  as  to  the  time 
of  picking  it,  as  a  delay  of  a  single  day  beyond  the  proper 
time  often  changes  the  choicest  leaves  into  an  inferior 
grade. 

The  picking  is  done  almost  entirely  "by  girls.  The  avei 
day's  work  for  a  picker  is  from  14  to  16  pounds  of  raw  lea 
which  will  produce  from  3£  to  4  pounds  of  prepared  tea 

The  preparation  of  the  tea  of  commerce  consists  of  tin- 
following  processes,  viz,  evaporating,  fermenting,  sunning, 
firing,  and  rolling. 

The  leaves  intended  for  preparing  black  tea  undergo  the 
same  process  as  those  for  preparing  green  tea,  except  that 
they  are  evaporated  and  fermented  for  a  very  much  longer 
period,  and  are  not  kept  in  motion  and  fanned  as  constantly. 
The  result  is  that  less  of  the  sap  is  left  in  them. 

Green  teas  are  of  two  styles,  rolled  and  twisted,  and  each 
of  these  is,  by  means  of  sieves,  sorted  into  two  sizes  and  then 
graded.  The  black  teas  are  also  assorted  according  to  size 
and  then  graded. 

"When  brought  to  the  point  of  exportation,  green  teas  are 
often  again  fired,  to  evaporate  any  moisture  fchey  may  have 
absorbed  in  transit,    and   are   then   packed   into   lead  lined 
paper-COVered    wooden   chests,    which  are  covered    with    mat 
ting. 

There  is  an  erroneous  idea,  which  is  quite  common,  that 
the  distinctive  color  of  green  tea  is  due  to  its  being  fired  in 
copper  pans.  Copper  pans  are  never  used  for  the  purpose 
but  the  firing  is  done  in  iron  pans,  paper -bottomed  pan 
baskets  made  of  split  bamboo.  The  firing  is  done  over  char 
coal  fires,  so  as  to  avoid  communicating  a  smoky  odor  t<>  the 
tea. 

There  are  almost  endless  varieties  of  green   and   black   !• 

The  Varieties  of  green  tea  more  commonly  purchased  by  the 

Subsistence    Department     are     Young     Hyson,     Gunpowder 
Imperial,  and  Japan;  and  of  the  black.  Oolong  and  Congou. 
Mo-Yuen  produces  the  best  green  teas.     Nankin  Mo- Yuen 
is. the  best  of  all. 


HANDBOOK   OP  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  179 

Gunpowder  is  so  named  from  its  round,  shotty  form.  Good 
Gunpowder  is  small,  globular,  and  granulated  in  appearance, 
and  is  of  the  earlier  pickings.  That  of  the  later  pickings  is 
larger,  more  irregular  in  form,  and  less  delicate  in  appearance, 
and  produces  a  darker  infusion  than  that  of  the  earlier 
pickings. 

Imperial  is  SO  named  because  it  is  used  in  the  imperial 
household  of  China.  The  Imperial  which  is  exported  is  from 
late  pickings  and  is  inferior  to  Gunpowder,  which  it 
resembles. 

Young  Hyson  and  Hyson  bear  the  same  relation  to  each 
other  that  exists  between  Gunpowder  and  Imperial.  The 
leaves  of  the  finer  grades  are  small  and  firmly  twisted.  The 
infusion  made  from  the  finer  grades  is  of  a  light-golden  hue. 

Of  Oolong,  the  best  grades  are  from  Foo-Chow  and  Formosa. 
The  leaves  of  the  finer  grades  of  Foo-Chow  Oolong  are  black 
and  crispy,  but  not  brittle,  and  the  infusion  is  of  a  dark-golden 
color,  while  the  leaves  of  the  poorer  grades  are  coarser  and 
more  brittle,  and  the  infusion  is  darker  and  has  less  fragrance 
and  flavor.  The  Formosa  Oolong  is  of  a  dark  greenish -yellow 
color,  the  leaves  are  small  and  well  curled,  the  infusion  is  of 
a  bright,  clear,  golden  color,  and  the  aroma  is  pleasant  and 
pronounced.  The  infusions  of  the  finer  grades  improve  in 
taste,  and  those  of  the  poorer  grades  get  an  herby  taste  as 
they  cool.  Unlike  all  other  varieties,  the  first  picking  is  the 
poorest  and  the  last  the  best. 

There  are  two  general  varieties  of  Congou  or  English  Break- 
fast, known  as  the  red-leaf  and  black-leaf.  The  latter  is  gen- 
erally brought  to  this  country.  The  best  of  the  latter  is  the 
Ning-Chow ;  this  has  a  small,  evenly  curled  leaf  of  a  grayish - 
black  color,  and  is  often  "pekoe-tipped,"  i.  e.,  it  has  pekoe 
leaves,  which  have  a  whitish,  downy  tip,  mixed  with  it.  The 
infusion  is  of  a  dark -reddish  color,  but  it  has  a  delicate  flavor 
and  a  fine  aroma. 

The  finer  grades  of  pan-fired  Japan  have  long,  well-curled 
green  leaves,  almost  like  sticks,  that  uncurl  rapidly  in  boiling 
water.  The  infusion  has  a  delicate  odor,  a  clear  and  bright 
color,  and  retains  these  characteristics  until  cold. 


180  HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE  STORES. 

The  principal  adulterants  of  tea  arc  "facing"  or  coloring 
matter,  ''used"  or  partially  spent  foreign  and  inferior  lea 
sand,  and  Iron  filings. 

For  facing,  Prussian  bine,  gypsum,  kaolin,  indigo,  turmeric, 
and  China  clay  are  the  materials  generally  used.  Facing 
causes  a  dirty  scum  to  rise  on  the  infusion,  and  gives 
greasy  appearance  and  feeling;  and,  if  it  is  strained,  son 
the  coloring  matter  will  adhere  to  the  strainer  cloth,  and  some 
of  it  will  pass  through  it  and  form  a  sediment  at  the  bottom 
of  the  receptacle. 

Tea  is  sometimes  prepared  for  the  market  from  used  leaves 
by  treating  them  with  logwood  extract  and  then  facing  them. 
Such  tea  may  be  recognized  by  its  peculiar  physical  char- 
acteristics, or  by  the  poor  quality  of  its  infusion. 

Tea  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  foreign  leaves.  The 
foreign  leaves  can  easily  be  detected  by  their  botanical  fea 
hires,  which  differ  markedly  from  those  of  the  genuine  tea; 
and,  also,  by  the  peculiar  flavor  they  impart  to  the  infusion. 
The  distinctive  botanical  features  of  the  tea  leaf  are  regularity 
of  serration,  which  stops  just  short  of  the  stalk,  and  the  pecul 
iarity  of  the  veins,  which  run  out  from  the  midrib  almost 
parallel  to  one  another,  altering  their  course  before  the  border 
is  reached,  and  turning  so  as  to  leave  a  bare  space  just  within 
the  border. 

To  Detf.ct  Sand  or  Iron  Filings  in  Tea. — Steep i ounce 
of  lea  in  8  fluid  ounces  of  boiling-hot  water  for  a  short  time; 
remove  fche  leaves  and  filter  through  filter  or  blotting  paper; 
and  then  examine  the  residuum  with  a  glass  that  magnifies 
from  5  to  10  diameters.  If  sand  or  iron  filings  are  present, 
they  will  be  readily  discerned. 

To  Determine  the  Quality  of  Tela  bv  Testing  its  i.mt 

SION.  —Weigh  out  20  grains  of  the  standard  sample  and  the 
same  quantity  of   the   sample   to  be   tested  and   put    them   in 

separate  cups  exactly  alike  in  all  respects;  pour  <»n  them  equal 
quantities  of  boiling-hoi  water  and  cover  the  cups  to  prevent 

the  aroma  of  the  infusion  from  escaping;  examine  them  for 
aroma  within  half  a  minute  after  the  water  is  poured  on  the 
samples  in  the  cups,  and  for  flavor,  by  tasting  as  soon  as  suf 
ficiently  COOl ;  then  let  the  infusion  stand  for  five  minutes  for 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  181 

green  teas,  eight  for  Oolong,  and  fifteen  for  English  Break- 
fast, when,  if  there  is  a  disagreeable  taste,  it  will  manifest 
itself. 

Broken  or  dusty  teas,  or  teas  with  dead  leaves,  and  those 
th.it  show  black,  infused  leaves,  or  stalks  that  float  on  the 
surface  of  the  infusion,  should  not  be  rrnrchased  for  the  nse 
( )f  the  Army. 

Teas  do  not  improve  with  age,  but  Congon  is  less  impaired 
by  it  than  other  varieties. 

Japan  teas  are  put  up  in  packages  of  from  50  to  80  pounds, 
net ;  Congon  65  pounds,  net ;  Oolong  from  45  to  65  pounds,  net. 
New-crop  Japan  teas  arrive  in  the  United  States  in  June; 
Congon  in  July ;  Oolong  in  August ;  and  Young  Hyson,  Gun- 
powder, and  Imperial  in  September. 

Tea  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place,  each  kind  by  itself, 
separated  from  every  other  article  from  which  it  might 
absorb  a  foreign  odor  or  taste.  Opened  packages  of  tea 
should  be  exposed  as  little  as  possible  to  the  air. 

THREAD,  COTTON. 

The  quality  of  cotton  thread  is  determined  by  its  strength, 
finish,  and  color. 

Cotton  thread  should  be  made  of  the  best  quality  of  raw 
cotton,  and  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  twisting  and 
finishing  it.  It  is  wound  on  spools  and  is  put  up  in  cartons 
containing  twelve  spools  each,  and,  for  Army  use,  forty -eight 
cartons  are  packed  in  a  case. 

Cotton  thread  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place. 

THREAD,    LINEN. 

The  quality  of  linen  thread  is  determined  by  its  strength, 
finish,  fineness  of  twist,  and  color. 

The  best  linen  thread  is  manufactured  from  the  best  Irish 
flax,  and  will  not  deteriorate  much  in  strength  by  being  kept 
on  hand  for,  say,  four  or  five  years,  provided  it  is  kept  in  a  dry 
place. 

Black  linen  thread  will  generally  begin  to  turn  brown  in 
about  two  or  three  years. 


182  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    BTOB 

Linen  thread  is  wound  on  spools,  and  these  arc  put  up  in 
cartons  of  twelve  spools  each  and  packed  in  cases  of  any- 
desired  size. 

THREAD,  SILK,   BLACK. 

To  determine  the  quality  of  black  silk  thread  it  is  carefully 
examined  as  to  color,  strength,  twist,  finish,  and  weight. 
The  best  quality  is  of  a  jet-black  color,  has  a  smooth  surface, 
and  is  well  twisted  and  free  from  knots.  It  is  generally  mad<  i 
of  the  finest  quality  of  Japan  or  China  raw  silk.  The  pr< 
of  manufacturing  and  dyeing  first-class  silk  thread  is  such 
that,  if  not  unnecessarily  exposed,  it  retains  its  quality  and 
color  unimpaired  for  a  long  time. 

Black  silk  thread  is  put  up  in  cartons  of  twelve  spools  each, 
in  sizes  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  which  are  packed  in  separate  cartons, 
and,  for  Army  use,  forty-eight  cartons  are  packed  in  a  case. 

TOBACCO. 

Plug  Tobacco.— Plug  tobacco  for  Army  use  should  be 
manufactured  from  the  first  quality  of  Kentucky  fillers  and 
a  fine  quality  of  Virginia  wrappers. 

The  tobacco  for  the  fillers  should  be  ripe,  sweet,  thoroughly 
cured,  and  absolutely  free  from  sand  or  grit.  It  should  be 
sweetened  to  the  proper  degree  witli  a  solution  in  water  of 
pure,  first  quality  licorice  and  cane  sugar,  called  "casing." 
The  tobacco  for  the  wrappers  should  be  Virginia  leaf  tobacco, 
thoroughly  sweated,  of  a  rich,  bright,  mahogany  color,  and 
absolutely  free  from  sand  or  grit,  The  plugs  should  be  L2 
inches  long  and  ;*  inches  wide,  and  should  weigh  L6  ounces. 
They  should  be  well  manufactured  and  possess  sucli  a  degree 
of  moisture  that,  while  being  pliable,  their  keeping  qualities 
shall  not  be  impaired. 

Plug  tobaCCO   should  be   packed  in    boxes  of   convenient  size 

made  from  kiln  dried  sycamore  wood. 

Plug  tobacco  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry,  Well  ventilated 

place,  and  never  in  a,  cellar  or  other  damp  place. 
Smoking  Tobacco.— There  are  three  general  varieties  of 

smoking  tobacco,  which  are  made  from  leaf  and  plug  tobaccos 
of   various   kinds,   viz,    plug-cut,   long-cut,    and    granulated. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  183 

Each  of  the  three  varieties  is  cut  into  strips  or  granular  parti- 
cles, by  means  of  a  machine  provided  with  steel  knives,  and 
then  sifted.  All  high  grades  of  smoking  tobacco  are  free  from 
stems.  The  best  quality  of  smoking  tobacco  is  made  from 
pure  Virginia  leaf  tobacco. 

There  are  many  mixtures  in  the  market,  made  from  various 
kinds  of  tobacco,  to  meet  the  various  tastes  of  consumers. 

Smoking  tobacco  is  manufactured  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Granulated  is  usually  put  up  for  the  trade  in  cloth  bags  of  2, 
4,  8,  and  16  ounces  each,  and  packed  in  cases  of  from  20  to  50 
pounds  each.  Plug-cut  is  put  up  in  paper,  tin-foil,  tin,  and 
cloth  subpackages,  and  is  usually  packed  in  cases  of  25  pounds 
each.  Long-cut  is  put  up  in  paper,  tin-foil,  and  tin  subpack- 
ages, and  is  packed  in  cases  of  25  pounds  each.  The  best  pack- 
ages and  subpackages,  for  Army  use,  are  as  follows:  Gran- 
ulated, in  4-ounce  and  8-ounce  tins,  in  cases  of  25  and  50  pounds 
each. 

Smoking  tobacco  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry,  place,  free 
from  moisture  or  dampness ;  should  it  become  moldy,  there  is 
no  remedy.  No  particular  care  is  necessary  in  transportation 
beyond  keeping  it  dry. 

TOMATOES,  CANNED. 

Tomatoes  are  the  fruit  of  the  Lycopersicum  esculentum  or 
tomato  plant,  which  belongs  to  the  order  Solanacece  or  night- 
shade family. 

The  tomato  plant  is  a  native  of  tropical  America,  probably 
Mexico.  It  was  first  cultivated  and  its  fruit  brought  into  use 
as  an  article  of  food  in  France,  where  it  was  called  pomme 
d' amour  or  love  apple. 

The  plant  requires  a  rich  soil  and  an  abundance  of  water  for 
i  1  s  successful  cultivation.  It  requires  to  be  trained  on  a  wall 
or  trellis.  The  fruit  is  a  true  berry,  i.  e. ,  it  is  fleshy  or  pulpy 
throughout.  It  is  from  1  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  either 
globose  in  shape  or  flattened  or  depressed  at  the  ends  and  dis- 
torted by  large,  swelling,  longitudinal  ridges.  The  fruit  of 
most  varieties,  when  ripe,  is  red,  but  of  some  it  is  yellow.  It 
requires  a  good  deal  of  heat  and  sunshine  to  ripen  tomatoes 
thoroughly.     In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  where 


184  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STOB 

the  tomato  plant  is  largely  cultivated,  it  flowers  from  June 
to  August  and  fruits  from  August  to  September, 

To  Can  Tomatoes. — There  are  two  methods  of  canning 
tomatoes,  viz,  the  cold  process  and  the  hot  process.  The  first 
is  used  in  canning  good  stock  and  the  second  in  canning  poor 
stock. 

By  the  cold  process,  the  tomatoes  are  placed  in  a  wire  basket 
and  submerged  in  boiling  water,  or  steamed,  until  the  skin 
can  be  easily  removed;  the  cans  are  filled,  capped,  and  soldered 
up,  and  then  processed  in  a  steam  drum  at  240°  F.,  for  eight 
minutes;  they  are  then  vented  and  the  venthole  soldered  up, 
and  reprocessed  for  about  twenty  minutes. 

By  the  hot  process,  the  tomatoes  are  skinned,  as  in  the  cold 
process,  and  then  cooked  in  cauldrons,  from  which  they  are 
put  into  the  cans  with  ladles,  and  the  cans  soldered  up.  They 
resemble  soup  and  are  called  "ladle  goods." 

Leaks  are  often  discovered  in  cans  after  they  have  been  pro- 
cessed; they  usually  occur  along  the  vertical  seam  of  the  can 
and  around  the  edge  of  the  cap,  and  are  easily  detected  by  the 
presence  of  extra  solder ;  those  on  the  seams  are  concealed  1  >y 
the  label.     Such  goods  are  known  to  the  trade  as  "seconds." 

The  season  for  canning  is  from  August  1  to  November  1  ; 
those  canned  earliest  are  watery,  and  those  canned  latest  arc 
apt  not  to  be  well  ripened,  while  those  canned  about  the 
middle  of  the  season  are  the  best. 

To  inspect  canned  tomatoes,  examine  as  to  appearance  and 
taste;  then  weigh  the  contents  of  the  can,  strain  through  a 
colander,  and  weigh  the  solid  fruit  remaining.  The  weight  of 
the  solid  fruit  varies  greatly,  being  from  50  to  K)  per  cent  ^i 
the  weight  of  the  entire  contents. 

Tomatoes  are  put  up  for  the  trade  in  21  pound  and  3-pound 
cans,  twenty-four  to  the  case,  and  1  gallon  cans,  six  to  the 
case.  The  3-pound  and  the  I  gallon  cans  are  the  most  suitable 
size  for  Army  use. 

No  extraordinary  care  is  required  in  the  storage  of  canned 
tomatoes;  they  will  withstand  a  temperature  as  low  as  zero 
without  serious  injury.     Freezing  does  not  much  damage  them. 

It  is  not  well  to  purchase  newly  canned   tomatoes  during 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES.  185 

the  canning  season  or  immediately  thereafter,  owing  to  the 
danger  of  loss  from  fermentation. 

No  special  care  is  required  in  the  transportation  of  canned 
tomatoes  beyond  the  avoidance  of  their  exposure  to  very  low 
temperatures. 

TONGUE,  BEEF,  CANNED. 

The  tongues  are,  while  green,  graded  according  to  size, 
cooked  thoroughly,  skinned,  trimmed  closely,  and  all  gullet 
fat  removed.  When  thus  prepared,  they  are  put  up  in  flat, 
cylindrical  cans  by  a  process  similar  to  that  for  canning  corned 
beef,  including  the  addition  of  meat  jelly.  The  presence  of 
gullet  fat  is  objectionable,  because  it  readily  becomes  rancid 
under  favorable  conditions. 

Beef  tongues  are  put  up  separately,  according  to  size,  in  Im- 
pound, 2-pound,  2^-pound,  and  3-pound  cans. 

The  cans  are  packed  in  cases  of  twenty-four  Impound  cans, 
and  twelve  of  the  2-pound,  2|-pound,  and  3-pound  cans,  respec- 
tively. 

The  2£-pound  can  is  the  best  for  Army  use. 

The  same  care  in  storage  and  transportation  should  be 
observed  as  in  the  case  of  canned  corned  beef.  It  has  good 
keeping  qualities. 

TOWELS. 

The  following  kinds  and  varieties  of  towels  are  kept  by  the 
Subsistence  Department,  for  sale  to  officers  and  enlisted  men 
of  the  Army,  viz : 

Linen  damask,  about  50  inches  long  and  26  inches  wide. 

Huckaback,  No.  1,  about  40  inches  long  and  20  inches  wide. 

Huckaback,  No.  2,  about  42  inches  long  and  21  inches  wide. 

Bath,  cotton,  about  42  inches  long  and  24  inches  wide. 

Bath,  linen,  about  63  inches  long  and  24  inches  wide. 

Wash,  cotton,  about  14  inches  long  and  12  inches  wide. 

Damask  Towels. — To  determine  the  quality  of  damask 
towels  they  are  examined  as  to  the  fineness  of  thread,  weight, 
size,  bleaching,  and  closeness  of  weave.  The  finish  of  the 
threads  is  examined  with  a  magnifying  glass,  which  will  show 
any  imperfections  in  the  twist. 


186  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

The  damask  towels  kept  by  the  Subsistence  Department  arc 
50  inches  long  and  26  inches  wide,  and  the  weight  of  twelve 
towels  is  5  pounds.  They  are  of  a  very  fine  quality,  and  have 
ends  of  knotted  fringe,  well  tied. 

The  commercial  case  contains  from  150  to  200  snbpackages 
of  1  dozen  each,  and,  on  account  of  its  large  size,  is  not  a  suit- 
able package  for  Army  use. 

Packages  for  Army  use  should  contain  not  exceeding  111 
towels  each,  or  12  subpackages. 

Bath  Towels,  Cotton. — The  yarn  used  in  making  these 
towels  is  made  from  good, 'long-staple,  well-seasoned  Georgia 
or  Carolina  raw  cotton.  Yarn  is  spun  of  the  requisite 
strength,  firmness,  and  twist;  it  is  then  woven  into  bath 
towels  on  Terry's  patent  power  looms,  by  a  particular  system 
which  insures  superior  absorbent  quality  combined  with 
durability. 

The  towels  are  bleached  with  extra  care,  using  artesian-well 
water,  and  drying  with  a  centrifugal  machine  and  in  a  steam 
heated  room.  They  are  42  inches  long  and  24  inches  wide, 
and  twelve  towels  will  weigh  8  or  9  pounds. 

The  commercial-size  package  contains  from  15  to  20  dozen, 
which  is  too  large  for  Army  use.     The  most  desirable  pack 
age  for  Army  use  is  a  repacked  case  containing  only  forty- 
eight  towels. 

In  the  inspection  of  these  towels  they  are  examined  as  to 
their  weight,  the  size  and  twist  of  the  yarn  of  which  they  are 
made,  and  the  quality  of  the  weaving. 

Towels,  Bath,  Linen. — These  towels  are  made  of  the  best 
Irish  flax,  in  or  near  Manchester,  England.      They  are  brown, 
rough  towels,  63  inches  long  and   24  inches  wide,  and   twelve 
of  them  will  weigh    L2|   pounds.      They   arc    packed    in    i 
containing  about  50  dozen. 

The  most  desirable  packages  for  Army  use  air  repacked 
cases  containing  forty  eight  towels  each. 

All  cases  containing  towels  should  he  made  of  clear  hoards. 
free  from  knots,  as  knots  are  liable  to  fall  out  and  permil  the 
entrance  of  mice 

TOWELING. 

Two  kinds  of  toweling  are  kepi  for  sale  in  officers  and 
enlisted  men  of  the  Army,  viz,  bleached  and  unbleached, 


HANDBOOK  OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  187 

The  quality  is  determined  by  the  class  of  yarn  used,  the 
size  and  finish  of  the  threads,  and  the  bleaching. 

Toweling  is  made  of  Scotch  or  Irish  flax,  and  is  put  up  in 
bolts  containing  25  or  50  yards  each. 

The  dimensions  and  weights  for  Army  use  are  as  follows : 
Bleached,  in  bolts  of  25  yards,  is  about  19  inches  wide  and 
weighs  5£  pounds.  Unbleached,  in  bolts  of  25  yards,  is  about 
20±  inches  wide  and  weighs  6f  pounds. 

VINEGAR. 

Vinegar  is  the  common  name  applied  to  a  dilute  and  some- 
what impure  solution  of  acetic  acid,  used  as  a  seasoning  in 
making  sauces,  salads,  etc. ,  and  as  a  preservative  in  making 
a  great  variety  of  pickles. 

The  alcoholic  liquor  formed  by  the  fermentation  of  the 
juice  of  grapes  or  other  fruits  becomes  sour  on  exposure  to 
the  air  and  is  readily  converted  into  vinegar.  When  dilute 
alcohol  is  treated  with  yeast  it  absorbs  oxygen,  water  is  split 
off,  and  a  very  unstable  compound,  aldehyde,  is  formed, 
which  oxidizes  readily  and  forms  acetic  acid  or  vinegar. 

In  the  so-called  " quick"  process  the  oxidation  of  the 
dilute  alcoholic  liquor  is  hastened  by  allowing  it  to  trickle 
through  shavings  already  saturated  with  vinegar,  the  tem- 
perature being  maintained  at  about  90°  F. 

In  the  United  States  the  alcoholic  liquors  used  are  chiefly 
whisky  (diluted  with  eight  or  ten  times  its  bulk  of  water) 
and  low  wine. 

Tall  tubs  or  vats,  sometimes  20  feet  high,  with  perforated 
bottoms,  called  generators,  are  filled  witfh  clean  beech  shav- 
ings, well  packed;  these  are  first  soaked  with  strong,  hot  vine- 
gar, then  the  diluted  alcoholic  liquor  is  poured  in  a  small, 
continuous  stream  upon  the  top  of  the  shavings,  whence  it 
trickles  down  slowly  through  them  to  the  bottom,  where 
the  oxidized  liquor  or  vinegar  is  drawn  off.  Whisky  can  thus 
be  converted  into  vinegar  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Vinegar  made  from  good  apple  cider,  by  a  good  process,  is 
the  best  for  table  use. 

Formerly,  most  of  the  vinegar  used  in  the  United  States 
was  cider  vinegar,  and  it  is  still  used  to  a  considerable 
extent. 


188  HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE    STORES. 

To  Make  Cider  Vinegar.— Partly  fill  barrels  with  cider, 
add  a  small  quantity  of  vinegar  or  mother-of-vinegar,  leave 
the  bungholes  open,  to  allow  the  free  entrance  of  air,  and 
keep  the  temperature  of  the  storeroom  at  or  above  75°  F.  In 
about  six  months  the  contents  of  the  barrels  will  have  turned 
into  vinegar. 

Beer,  malt,  glucose,  artificial,  and  wood  vinegars  arc  all 
objectionable,  and  should  never  be  purchased  for  Army  use. 

Vinegar  is  frequently  adulterated  with  other  acids,  such  as 
sulphuric  and  muriatic,  but  no  matter  how  small  the  mix- 
ture, or  the  caution  used,  they  are  readily  detected. 

The  formulas  of  acetic  acid  and  its  adulterations  are  as 
follows,  viz:  Acetic  acid,  CaH402;  hydrochloric  acid,  HC1; 
sulphuric  acid,  H2S04 ;  and  nitric  acid,  HN03.  A  compari 
son  of  these  formulas  shows  that  the  acetic  acid  is  derived 
from  alcohol,  and  that  it  is  organic,  while  its  substitutes  are 
inorganic. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  obvious  that,  in  examining  a  sam- 
ple of  vinegar,  the  first  consideration  should  be  toward  the 
detection  of  foreign  acids;  and  if  these  are  present  beyond  a 
mere  trace  that  might  possibly  come  from  the  water  or  from 
the  receptacles  containing  it,  the  sample  should  be  rejectee!. 

Methods  of  Examination.— 1.  Half  fill  a  test  tube  with 
vinegar,  add  a  small  crystal  of  barium  chloride,  and  if  sul- 
phuric acid  is  present,  the  barium  chloride  will  be  precipi- 
tated as  a  sulphate. 

2.  Half  fill  a  test  tube  with  vinegar,  add  a  small  crystal  of 
silver  nitrate,  and  if  hydrochloric  acid  is  present,  the  silver 
will  be  precipitated  as  a  chloride. 

3.  Nearly  fill  a  test  tube  with  vinegar  and  sulphuric  acid, 
one  and  one,  being  careful  to  pour  the  sulphuric  acid  on  the 
vinegar,  and  not  the  vinegar  on  the  acid;  cool  the  mixture 
and  add,  cautiously,  along  the  side  of  the  test  tube,  a  few- 
drops  of  ferrous  sulphate,  so  that  the  fluids  will  come  in  con 
fcact,  but  not  mix;  if  nitric  acid  is  present,  the  stratum  of 
contact  will  show  a  purple  of  reddish  color,  which  changes 
to  brown.  If  the  fluids  arc  then  mixed,  a  clear  brownish 
purple  liquid  will  be  obtained. 


HANDBOOK   OF  SUBSISTENCE   STORES.  189 

The  Brucine  Test. To  a  few  cubic  centimeters  of  vine- 
gar in  a  test  tube  add  four  or  five  drops  of  brucine,  and  then 
a  few  drops  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  if  nitric  acid 
is  present,  a  red  color  will  be  developed. 

To  Distinguish  Cider  Vinegar  from  Spirit  Vinegar. — 
Place  a  weighed  quantity  of  the  sample  to  be  tested  in  a  porce- 
lain dish  and  evaporate  it  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F.,  until 
constant ;  the  residuum  should  be,  for  cider  vinegar,  not  less 
than  2  per  cent,  and  should  be  from  a  clear  light-brown  to  a 
dark-brown  color,  soft,  viscid,  and  hygroscopic;  and,  when 
1  mrned,  should  give  off  the  odor  of  burned  apples.  A  lead- 
acetic  solution  will  cause  an  immediate  light  yellowish-brown 
precipitate  in  cider  vinegar,  the  precipitate  settling,  usually 
in  flakes,  in  less  than  five  minutes. 

To  Determine  Strength. — In  using  Twitchell's  acidimeter, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  45°  mark  thereon  is  generally 
about  equivalent  to  the  chemist's  test  of  35  grains  of  potassium 
bicarbonate  neutralizing  one  fluid  ounce  of  vinegar. 

The  quantity  of  potassium  bicarbonate  or  of  sodium  bicar- 
bonate necessary  to  neutralize  the  acetic  acid  contained  in  a 
fluidounce  of  vinegar  of  1  per  cent  strength  is  as  follows: 
Potassium  bicarbonate,  7.42  grains;  sodium  bicarbonate,  6.23 
grains.  These  quantities  increase  in  direct  proportion  as  the 
percentage  of  acid  increases ;  thus,  to  neutralize  a  fluid  ounce  of 
vinegar  of  4|  per  cent  strength  requires  33.39  grains  of  potas- 
sium bicarbonate,  or  28.03  grains  of  sodium  bicarbonate;  and 
of  5  per  cent  strength,  37.10  grains  of  the  former,  or  31.15 
grains  of  the  latter,  respectively. 

Vinegar  for  Army  use  should  contain  from  44-  to  5  per  cent 
of  acetic  acid. 

If  flies  or  eels  are  in  vinegar,  they  can  be  readily  detected 
by  the  microscope.  They  are  easily  destroyed  by  raising  the 
temperature  of  the  vinegar  to  212°  F. 

Vinegar  for  Army  use  should  be  put  up  in  iron-bound  oak 
barrels,  painted  red,  and  the  bungs  capped  with  tin. 

Vinegar  should  never  be  exposed  to  a  freezing  temperature. 


APPENDIX. 


NOTES  ON  CANNED  GOODS. 

Soldered-up  Holes  in  Tops  of  Cans.—  The  process  of  can- 
ning articles  of  food  involves  the  making  and  soldering  np  of 
two  punctured  holes  in  the  top  of  each  can,  and  therefore 
has  no  bad  significance.  The  presence,  however,  of  three 
soldered-up  punctured  holes  in  the  top  of  a  can  is  indicative 
of  "reheating,"!  e.,  of  the  can  having  in  the  first  instance 
failed  to  stand  the  "vacuum  test,"  and  that,  to  remedy  this 
defect,  it  has  been  returned  to  the  process  tank,  reheated  and 
again  vented  and  the  venthole  soldered  up.  Reheated  cans 
are  more  likely  to  spoil  than  those  that  are  perfectly  processed 
in  the  first  instance,  as  decomposition  may  have  set  in  before 
they  were  reheated.  Owing  to  the  aforesaid  objections  to 
reheated  cans  canners  who  reheat  cans  are  careful  to  make 
the  third  puncture  as  inconspicuous  as  possible,  and  frequently 
endeavor  to  conceal  it  entirely  by  making  it  on  the  side  of 
the  can  near  the  top,  under  the  lid,  and  pasting  the  label  over 
it.  By  running  the  finger  around  the  rims  of  a  can  it  is 
easily  determined  whether  it  has  a  third  soldered-up  hole  or 
not  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  small  lump  of  solder. 

Reprocessing. — Sometimes  newly  packed  cans  of  food  are 
so  much  swollen  that  reheating  would  not  be  adequate.  In 
such  cases  the  cans  are  opened  and  emptied  and  the  contents 
picked  over  and  the  unsound  parts  thrown  away.  The  sound 
parts  are  then  repacked  into  cans,  which  are  subjected  to  the 
same  process  as  in  the  original  canning,  and  these  operations 
are  called  ' '  reprocessing. "  Reprocessed  cans  have  only  two 
soldered-up  punctured  holes  in  them  and  otherwise  have  the 
same  external  appearance  as  regularly  packed  cans,  and  their 
defective  quality  can  be  determined  only  by  opening  them 
and  examining  their  contents,  which  will  present  an  over- 
cooked appearance. 

(191) 


192  APPENDIX. 

Reprocessing  is  rarely  resorted  to,  because  its  cos1  lea 
little,  if  any,  margin  of  profit  for  the  canner. 

Quality  of  Tin. — The  tin  used  in  making  cans  should  be 
of  the  best  quality,  and  the  solder  should  be  carefully  applied 
on  the  outside  of  the  cans  only,  so  as  to  prevent  its  coming  in 
contact  with  the  contents.  The  corrosive  action  of  the  con 
tained  fruits,  etc. ,  on  the  tin  of  the  cans  produces  crystalline 
figures  upon  their  inner  surfaces  which  arc  suggestive  of  tin 
in  solution  being  taken  up  in  injurious  quantities  by  the  food 
in  the  cans. 

Effects  of  Age. — The  American  Grocer  says  editorially: 
"The  popular  idea  is  that  canned  or  preserved  food  should  be 
judged  by  the  standard  set  up  for  fresh  food,  on  the  ground 
that  'the  fresher  things  are  the  better.'  As  a  general  propo- 
sition, this  latter  idea  is  correct,  but  as  applied  to  canned 
goods  it  is  erroneous  and  misleading.  It  is  frequently  the 
case  that  goods  put  up  during  the  latest  season  are  very 
inferior  to  the  same  sort  of  goods  put  up  three,  five,  or  more 
years  earlier.  The  character  of  seasons  varies  from  year  to 
year.  Thus,  in  a  season  of  excessive  moisture,  peaches  contain 
much  more  water  than  in  a  season  of  ordinary  climatic  con 
ditions.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  quality  of  peaches 
and  other  fruits  varies  from  year  to  year,  rendering  it  pos- 
sible for  the  older  goods  to  be  better  than  the  newer.  Some 
fruits,  as  for  instance,  pineapples,  are  better  the  second  or 
third  year  than  the  first,  because  it  takes  time  for  the  sirup 
to  thoroughly  permeate  the  fruit.  The  same  is  true  of  many 
acid  fruits,  which,  when  first  packed,  are  a  little  hard  hut 
which  become  mellow  with  time  and  tlie  absorption  of  t  lie  sirup. 
Age  works  no  harm  to  canned  goods.  If  properly  put  up 
they  will  keep  indefinitely,  as  claimed  by  Appert,  the  discos 
erer  of  the  process,  in  1807.  This  has  been  proven  by  the 
tests  of  eighty  odd  years." 

The  Effects  of  Cold.— With  respect  t<>  the  effects  of  ex 
treme  cold  upon  canned  goods,  Brig.  Gten.  A.  W.  Greely,  Chief 

Signal  Officer,  U.  S.  Army,  says. 

"You  ask  me  to  State  tin-  effects  of   freezing  upon    canned 

fruits  and  vegetables,  especially  as  regards  the  texture  and 


APPENDIX.  193 

flavor  of  tomatoes,  corn,  etc.  Apples,  peaches,  pears,  rhubarb, 
green  peas,  green  corn,  onions,  potatoes,  and  tomatoes  were  all 
subject,  at  Lady  Franklin  Bay,  to  extreme  temperatures  (over 
60  degrees  below  zero),  and  were  solid  for  months  at  a  time. 
The  second  summer  they  thawed,  and  the  following  winter 
froze  solid  again.  All  the  articles  named  presented  the  same 
appearance  as  though  freshly  canned,  and  their  flavor  was  as 
good  when  the  contents  of  the  last  can  were  eaten  as  in.  the 
first  month.  It  should  be  understood  that  these  were  first- 
class  goods  and  from  dealers  of  standing  and  reliability.  Cran- 
berry sauce,  preserved  peaches,  and  fruit  butters  suffered 
certain  changes  from  candying,  etc.,  which  detracted  some- 
what from  their  flavor,  though  not  materially  so.  Dealers  in 
such  preserves  predicted  that  such  conditions  and  changes 
would  occur.  I  had  also  canned  turnips,  squash,  beets,  and 
carrots,  as  well  as  pineapples,  cherries,  grapes,  clams,  shrimps, 
and  crabs,  which,  although  not  subject  to  such  extreme  tem- 
peratures as  the  foregoing,  yet  froze  and  thawed  repeatedly 
without  injury.  No  can  of  any  kind,  except  a  few,  say  half  a 
dozen  of  fruit  butters,  was  ever  burst  by  the  action  of  cold  or 
heat." 

Tests  by  Freezing. — An  officer  of  the  Subsistence  Depart- 
ment while  stationed  at  St.  Paul.  Minn%,  in  the  winter  of 
1876-77,  exposed  a  few  articles  of  subsistence  stores  to  a  tem- 
perature of  10°  F.  below  zero,  thawed  them  out  in  a  few  days, 
examined  the  contents,  and  reported  as  follows,  viz : 

"None  of  the  cans  burst  and  no  signs  of  the  starting  of  the 
solder  could  be  discovered.  The  tomatoes  were  not  appar- 
ently changed  in  any  respect  by  freezing.  The  peaches  were 
softened,  their  texture  being  somewhat  ruptured.  The  aspar- 
agus was  rendered  flat  and  insipid,  and  the  green  peas,  while 
to  the  eyes  were  unchanged,  still  their  flavor  was  impaired. 
Vinegar  in  kegs  or  barrels,  if  frozen,  is  liable  to  burst  the  bar- 
rels, and  on  thawing  is  found  to  be  unchanged  in  properties. 
Olive  oil  is  not  injured  by  freezing.  Good  extracts  have  pure 
alcohol  without  water  in  them  and  can  not  freeze  at  any 
temperature  found  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States. 
Throughout  the  Department  of  Dakota,  in  winter,  fires  are 

339 25 


L94  APPENDIX 

kept  up  night  and  day  in  the  subsistence  storehouses  al  all 
posts.  The  long-continued  cold  weather  of  that  climate  would 
freeze  solid  everything  and  break  all  bottles  and  start  all  cans 
whose  contents  were  largely  fluid  and  nearly  filled  the  can  to 
the  top.  Water  expands  0.089,  nearly  -^  in  volume,  on  i t 
ing.  Water,  in  canning,  from  39.83°,  its  greatest  density  tem- 
perature, to  212°  F.,  the  boiling  point,  level  of  the  sea,  expands 
0.4012  in  volume;  from  72°  F.  to  212°,  it  expands  0.03832.  In 
processing  cans  that  are  filled  with  juice,  like  tomatoes,  for 
instance,  an  expansion  of  0.03832  takes  place.  A  gallon  can 
contains  231  cubic  inches ;  its  contents  expand  8. 85  cubic  inch,  is 
in  processing,  and  this  percentage  of  the  contents  is  lost  by 
passing  out  through  the  vent.  A  3-pound  can  holds  about 
a  quart ;  therefore  loses  of  its  contents  about  2. 213  cubic  inches. 
We  may  then  regard  that  a  processed  can  (3-pound)  after 
returning  to  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  (72  F. )  to 
have  a  vacuity  of  2.21  cubic  inches,  which  can  be  filled  up 
without  injury  to  the  can  by  a  moderate  freezing  of  the  con 
tents ;  but  when  they  are  frozen  solid,  the  expansion  is  equal 
to  5.15  cubic  inches,  which  would  most  likely  rupture  the  tin 
or  start  the  solder." 

In  order  to  secure  more  extended,  complete,  and  satisfactory 
results,  obtain  full  knowledge  on  the  subject,  and  establish  a 
reliable  basis,  the  Chief  Commissary,  Department  of  Dakota, 
was  instructed  by  the  Commissary  General  of  Subsistence,  in 
January,  1896,  to  experiment  with  various  articles  of  subsist- 
ence stores  by  exposing  them  to  extremely  cold  weather  and 
to  report  the  results. 

Taking  advantage  of  a  very  cold  snap  on  February  li>,  L896, 
which  reached  19°  F.  below  zero,  the  stores  were  exposed  until 
February  21,  during  which  time  they  were  subjected  to  a 
varying  temperature,  which,  however,  did  not  rise  above  ">  1\ . 
and  every  article  was  frozen  solid;  they  were  then  removed  t«> 
a  cool  cellar  where  they  remained  until  June  20,  L896,  when 
they  were  examined  and  compared  with  similar  articles  of  the 
same  brand  that  had  not  been  frozen. 

The  report  of  the  result  of  the  experiments  states: 

"This  examination  and  comparison  very  clearly  established 
the  fact  that  when  moist   food  had  been  frozen  solid  and  was 


APPENDIX.  195 

thawed  out,  a  permanent  chemical  change  had  taken  place. 
Not  so  great  a  change,  perhaps,  as  if  subjected  to  boiling  heat, 
but  still  a  change;  and  this  was  particularly  noticeable  in 
goods  which  contained  acid,  sugar,  and  salt.  Sometimes  the 
change  in  taste  and  appearance  was  so  slight  that  it  would  not 
have  been  noticed  except  by  comparing  with  goods  which  had 
not  been  frozen.  None  of  the  cans  containing  the  frozen  goods 
were  cracked  or  had  the  solder  started;  and  the  can  heads 
which  had  been  bulged  by  freezing  had  entirely  subsided.  This 
examination  was  only  as  to  general  results;  the  exact  determi- 
nation of  change  or  deterioration  could  only  be  ascertained  by 
a  practical  chemist.  Another  noticeable  thing  about  this 
examination  was,  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  goods  did 
not  cause  any  perceptible  fermentation. " 

The  following  is  the  result  of  the  experiments  in  detail : 

Pork. — Was  frozen  in  brine ;  could  not  detect  any  difference 
in  taste  or  appearance  even  when  cooked. 

Bacon. — Moisture  and  salt  were  drawn  to  the  surface ;  tasted 
drier  and  less  salty. 

Corned  Beef. — Could  not  detect  any  difference  in  taste  or 
appearance. 

Dried  Codfish. — Moisture  and  salt  drawn  to  the  surface; 
tasted  drier  and  less  salty. 

Pickled  Mackerel.—  Frozen  in  brine.  Somewhat  softer  and 
less  salty. 

Tomatoes  (cans). — Flavor  slightly  impaired. 

Molasses  (cans). — Color  somewhat  darker  and  less  flavor. 

Vinegar  (keg). — Slight  loss  of  acidity. 

Apples  (cans) . — Flavor  considerably  impaired,  and  pieces 
had  a  more  ruptured  and  mushy  appearance. 

Apricots. — Pieces  somewhat  ruptured  and  flavor  slightly 
changed. 

Creamery  Butter. — Was  frozen  in  brine.  More  musty  to 
taste  than  the  sample  not  frozen,  and  it  was  also  whiter  in 
appearance. 

American  Cheese. — More  granular  in  appearance  and  flavor 
changed. 

Green  Corn. — Softer,  sweeter  to  the  taste,  and  had  lost  its 
freshness. 


196  APPENDIX. 

( 'rabs. — Softer,  and  flavor  changed. 

Flavoring  Extract,  Lemon. — Did  not  freeze  or  have  cork 
started,  but  flavor  seemed  slightly  less  fresh  and  strong. 

Flavoring  Extract,  Vanilla. — Did  not  freeze  or  have  e< up- 
started, but  flavor  seemed  less  fresh  and  strong.  When  sub- 
jected to  lowest  temperature,  it  was  slightly  congealed. 

Sugar-cured  Ham. — Moisture  and  salt  drawn  to  the  surfi 
It  was  found  very  moldy,  which  destroyed  its  flavor.     Had 
the  cover  been  removed  after  it  was  frozen,  it  might  not  have 
been  so  moldy. 

Blackberry  Jam.— Less  firm  and  flavor  slightly  changed. 

Currant  Jelly. — Less  firm  and  flavor  slightly  changed. 

Lard. — Could  not  detect  any  difference  in  looks  or  in  taste, 
even  when  cooked. 

Lobster. — Flavor  slightly  changed. 

Milk. — Sugar  more  crystallized. 

Mushrooms. — Less  fresh  to  the  taste. 

French  Mustard. — Cork  started  at  12  below  zero,  but  could 
not  detect  any  change  in  flavor. 

Olive  Oil. — Bottle  not  broken  or  cork  started.  Could  not 
detect  any  difference.  When  subjected  to  lowest  temperature 
it  was  congealed. 

Ousters. — Pieces  somewhat  ruptured  and  flavor  changed. 

Peaches  (cans). — Pieces  not  so  firm  and  flavor  slightly 
changed. 

Pears. — Slight  loss  of  flavor  and  pieces  not  so  firm, 

American  Peas. — Less  firm  and  slight  loss  of  flavor. 

French  Peas. — Slight  loss  of  flavor. 

Gherkin  Pickles  (Gedney's). — Bottle  was  broken  at  14  below- 
zero  (Fahrenheit).  Contents  soft,  but  possibly  the  cause  of 
this  softness  was  the  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  after  bottle 
was  broken. 

Chowchow  Pickles  (Heinz' s). — Cork  started  at  L2  below 
zero  (Fahrenheit),  but  could  not  detect  any  change  in  flavor. 

Fresh  Pigs*  Feet-  -Less  fresh  in  taste. 

Pineapple. — Pieces  somewhat  softer  and  had  less  flavor. 

Preserve,  Damson. — Could  not  detect  any  difference  in  look- 
er taste. 

Salmon  (cans). — Less  fresh  in  taste. 


APPENDIX.  197 

San  lines. — Less  fresh  in  taste. 

(  'raulxrrt/  Sauce. — Flavor  slightly  changed. 

Worcestershire  Sauce. — Cork  started  at  10°  below  zero 
(Fahrenheit).  Less  strength  and  freshness  in  taste,  but  this 
may  have  been  partly  caused  by  exposure  to  atmosphere  after 
cork  was  started. 

Shrimp. — Somewhat  drier  and  a  slight  loss  of  flavor. 

Chicken  Soup.  — Could  not  discover  any  difference  in  appear- 
ance or  flavor  even  when  cooked. 

Beef  Tongue. — Could  not  detect  any  difference. 

Toilet  Soap  (American  Glycerin). — There  was  no  difference. 

Black  Ink  (Thomas's). — In  paper  bottles.  The  bottle  had 
leaked,  but  no  difference  in  color  or  writing  quality  was 
perceivable. 

When  -canned  or  bottled  goods  have  become  frozen  they 
should,  if  possible,  be  kept  in  that  state  till  required  for  imme- 
diate use.  By  immersion  in  cold  water,  they  can  be  restored 
to  nearly  their  original  condition. 

Effects  of  Heat.— Surg.  Maj.  W.  Simpson,  M.  B.,  British 
Army,  says: 

''Taking  my  experience  in  India  and  the  late  Nile  expedi- 
tion, in  which  the  test  of  tinned  provisions  was  exceptionally 
severe  from  continual  exposure  to  the  powerful  direct  rays  of 
the  sun,  I  have  found  that  tinned  provisions,  meat,  and  vege- 
tables, put  up  separately,  or  combined  in  the  form  of  soups, 
are  practicably  undamageable  by  any  climatic  heat,  provided 
the  following  conditions  are  carried  out : 

"  1.  Provisions  to  be  of  best  quality. 

"2.  To  have  received  the  proper  amount  of  cooking  before 
the  tin  is  closed. 

"3.  To  be  put  up  in  vacuo  in  perfectly  sound,  air-tight  tins. 

"The  only  class  of  provisions  that,  in  my  experience,  suffer 
from  great  heat  is  that  of  uncooked  articles,  such  as  butter, 
cheese,  and  some  forms  of  potted  meats.  Of  course,  once  the 
tin  is  opened,  the  contents  last  much  longer  in  cold  than  in 
warm  weather,  and  last  better  in  hot,  dry  weather  than  in  hot, 
moist  weather.  In  this  last  case  the  provisions  must  be  used 
immediately. " 


198  APPENDIX. 


NOTES  ON  INSECTS. 


Insects  are  small,  metamorphosic  animals  having,  with 
rare  exceptions,  four  distinct  states  of  existence,  viz,  (1)  the 
ovum  or  egg,   (2)  the  larva  or  caterpillar  or  maggot,  (3)  the 

pupa  or  chrysalis,  and  (4)  the  imago  or  beetle  or  adult. 

The  following  are  the  principal  insects  that  are  destructive 
to  articles  of  subsistence  stores,  viz : 

1.  The  Dermestes  lardarius  or  bacon  bug.  It  is  very  de- 
structive to  bacon  and  all  other  kinds  of  dried  meat.  This 
insect,  while  in  the  imago  or  beetle  state,  deposits  its  eggs  on 
bacon  or  other  dried  meats,  and  from  these  the  larvae  are 
hatched.  As  soon  as  the  larvsB  are  hatched  they  commence 
their  ravages  upon  the  meat.  When  full  fed,  they  change 
into  the  pupa  or  chrysalid  state,  and  from  that,  in  due  time, 
into  the  imago  or  beetle  state.  The  beetles  are  about  J  inch 
long,  and  are  of  a  dusky-brown  color,  except  the  upper  half 
of  the  wing  cases,  which  are  of  a  whitish  or  ash  color.  These 
insects,  when  in  the  larva  and  pupa  states,  are  so  concealed  in 
the  meat  that  they  can  not  be  effectually  removed  from  it,  but 
upon  attaining  the  imago  state  they  are  no  longer  concealed, 
and  may  be  readily  removed  and  destroyed. 

2.  The  Dermestes  vulpinus  or  hide  bng  is  similar  to  the 
bacon  bug. 

3.  The  Masca  vomitoria  or  meat  fly  is  about  I  inch  long, 
and  has  a  thick,  hairy  body  of  a  black  color,  except  the  hind 
part,  which  is  of  a  shining  blue  color.  These  insects  are 
remarkable  tor  their  extraordinarily  powerful  sense  of  smell. 
They  scent  meat  from  long  distances  and  come  in  swarms  and 
deposit  their  eggs,  commonly  called  flyblows,  upon  it.  A 
piece  of  meat  is  never  secure  from  their  attacks  unless  it  is 
well  covered.  These  flies  frequent  meat  shops,  kitchens,  and 
pantries.  The  period  of  their  metamorphoses  is  very  short, 
only  about  four  days  from  the  larva  to  the  imago  Btate;  and 
hence  their  great  fecundity.  Among  subsistence  stores,  they 
are  most  likely  to  attack  fresh  beef. 

4.  The  Calandra  granaria  or  grain  weevil  is  about  |  inch 

long,  without  wings,   and  varies  in  color  from  a  dark  chest 
nut  to   pitch  black.      These  weevils    make    their    appearance 
in  April  or  May,  according  to  the  climate,  and  continue  their 


APPENDIX.  199 

ravages  until  August.  The  weevil  bores  a  hole  in  the  grain 
of  wheat  with  its  rostrum,  ami  deposits  in  it  an  egg.  From 
the  egg  a  larva  is  hatched.  -The  larva  feeds  on  the  inside  of 
the  grain,  changes  into  a  pupa,  and  finally  into  an  imago, 
within  the  husk,  and  then  eats  its  way  out.  All  kinds  of 
grain  are  acceptable  to  this  very  destructive  insect. 

5.  The  Sylvanus  surinamensis  is  another  grain  weevil.  It  is 
smaller  than  the  Calandra  granaria,  of  flat  shape  and  a  rusty - 
brown  color.  It  is  coarsely  punctured  and  sparingly  clothed 
with  short,  yellow,  depressed  hairs  of  an  orange  color. 

6.  The  Bruchus  granarius,  another  bean  weevil.  It  has  a 
1  (lack  body,  densely  punctured  with  short  brown  hairs. 

7.  The  Bruchus  pisi  or  pea  weevil  has  a  black  body,  densely 
clothed  with  short  brightish -brown  hairs  on  top,  and  hairs  of  a 
grayish  color  and  silky  appearance  underneath.  It  resembles 
closely,  but  is  smaller  than,  the  Bruchus  granarius. 

8.  The  Calandra  oryza  or  rice  weevil,  which  is  almost 
identical  with  the  Calandra  granaria  or  grain  weevil.  It 
has  a  smooth  body  of  elliptical  shape,  and  varies  in  color, 
some  specimens  being  of  a  pale-chestnut  or  ocherous  color, 
while  others  are  black,  and  others  still  are  of  every  shade 
between  the  two  extremes,  according,  it  is  presumed,  to  the 
age  of  the  insects. 

The  best  remedies  against  the  insect  evil  are  the  destruction 
of  the  insects  as  fast  as  they  appear,  and  the  exclusion  from 
the  packages  of  stores  and  the  storehouse  of  the  flies  or  moths 
that  lay  the  eggs  that  produce  the  insects. 

As,  because  of  the  great  fecundity  of  the  insects  that  prey 
upon  subsistence  stores,  all  remedies  against  them  are,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  ineffectual,  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised not  to  receive  on  contracts  any  articles  infested  with 
weevils  or  any  other  injurious  insects. 


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